Download Classical and Operant Conditioning

Learning & Motivation
Dr Jacqui McKechnie
Learning
Learning is a relatively permanent change of
behaviour or knowledge that occurs as a result
of experience.
Classical Conditioning
Pavlov (1927)
Pavlov was interested in how creatures made associations
between events. He produced salivation from dogs as a
response to the sound of a bell.
Before conditioning (Part 1)
Reflex: salivation
food
Neutral Stimulus:
bell
No response
During conditioning (Part 2)
bell sounded
0.5 - 1 sec before
food
salivation
Evidence of conditioning (Part 3)
Rings bell
(conditioned
stimulus)
salivation
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
a stimulus that has the ability to produce a specified
response without conditioning (FOOD)
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
automatic unlearned reaction produced by the UCS
(SALIVATION PRODUCED BY FOOD)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
an initially neutral stimulus that comes to produce a new
response because it is associated with the UCS (BELL)
Conditioned Response (CR)
the response that results due to the association formed
between the UCS & the CS (SALIVATION PRODUCED
BY BELL)
Extinction
Repeatedly presenting the CS without the UCS leads to
extinction of the response.
Stimulus Generalisation
Stimulus can be varied and still elicit the response.
Significance of Stimulus
If highly significant for safety of individual - very
long time to extinguish.
Second Order Conditioning
Occurs when a CS is paired with a NS
Some Applications of Classical
Conditioning
• Overcoming Phobias (systematic desensitisation)
• Aversion Therapy E.g Antabuse
Fighting Disease
• Increases and decreases in immune responses can be
classically conditioned
Olness and Alder (1992) Buske-Kirschbaum (1994)
• Placebo (NS) + Drug (UCS) -> Beneficial Effects (CR)
Operant Conditioning
Skinner (1938)
Skinner was interested in how the
consequences of a behaviour
affected its repetition
Operant - small action which can have an effect on the
surrounding environment.
A reinforcer will increase the probability that the
operant behaviour will recur.
Primary reinforcement
Using a reward which satisfies a primary need
such as food or sex.
Secondary reinforcement
Using a reward that doesn’t satisfy a primary need e.g.
money.
Token Economy Programme (Ayllon and Azrin, 1968)
Positive Reinforcement
getting a reward such as food or praise
Negative Reinforcement
avoiding something unpleasant such as pain
Both types of reinforcers INCREASE certain behaviours.
Punishment
getting something unpleasant such as a smack
Cost Response
removing something pleasant such as a fine
These REDUCE or suppress behaviour.
Shaping
Reward each successive approximation until the desired
behaviour is demonstrated.
Discriminative Stimulus
Amount of change a stimulus can undergo and still elicit the
response.
Learned Helplessness
Control is important in conditioning.
Reinforcement Schedules
How often the reward is given for demonstrating the
desired behaviour.
Continuous reinforcement - easy to extinguish
Partial reinforcement - difficult
Fixed Ratio
Fixed Interval
E.g. Reward every 10 bar presses
E.g. Reward every five minutes
Variable Ratio
presses
Variable Interval
E.g. Reward a variable number of bar
E.g Reward a variable interval of time
Social Learning
Observational or social learning- process of learning
by watching others.
Bobo Doll Study
Bandura, Ross and Ross (1963)
Vicarious Conditioning
Being influenced by seeing or hearing about the
consequences of others’ behaviour
ie - if the behaviour is seen to be rewarded then it is
more likely to be copied.
What influences whether behaviour is modelled or not?
•
Attention
•
Ability to reproduce
the behaviour
•
Retention
•
Motivation
Motivation
Motivation refers to the influences
that govern the initiation, direction,
intensity and persistence of
behaviour.
Theories of Motivation
Instinct Theory
McDougall (1908)
Lorenz (1937)
Freud (1938)
• biological factors
• behaviours present at birth which are important
for survival
Drive Reduction Theory
Cannon (1932)
Hull (1943)
• biological factors
• based on homeostasis and equilibrium
Cognitive Consistency Theory
Festinger (1957)
• If a person has two thoughts which are
inconsistent -> discomfort - cognitive dissonance
• carry out behaviour to reduce this discomfort
Arousal Theory
Geen (1984)
• maintain optimal level of arousal
• differs from person to person
People perform best with a moderate level of arousal.
Yerkes-Dodson Law (Hebb, 1955)
Optimal Level
Increasing
alertness
Increasing
anxiety
Level of Arousal