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Molecular biology KBC/MBIOG Textbook: Alberts et al. Molecular Biology of the Cell, Garland Science, New York 5th ed., 2008 6th ed., 2014 Molecular biology (KBC/MBIOG) Ivo Frébort • 1. Cells and Genomes A cell contains complete genetic information about the organism All cells store their hereditary information in the same linear chemical code - DNA All cells replicate their hereditary information by templated polymerization All cells transcribe portions their hereditary information into the same intermediary form – RNA Structure of RNA All cells use proteins as catalysts Central dogma of molecular biology Building of the cell from monomers All cells translate RNA into protein in the same way Four steps of the translation Structure of a ribosome What is a gene? ONE GENE is the fragment of genetic information corresponding to one protein (in case of transcription to mRNA) or one non-coding RNA (in case of of transcription to rRNA, tRNA, etc.) All cells are enclosed in a plasma membrane Nutrients, waste, etc. must pass through the plasma membrane Mycoplasma genitalium the simplest organism 477 genes (580,070 bp) Procaryotes – the greatest diversity Procaryotes – big diversity in nutrient usage Phototropic bacteria Anabaena cylindrica Organotrophic bacteria Escherichia coli Lithotropic bacteria Beggiatoa spp. Tree of life Bacteria, Archaea ~ 1.000-4.000 genes, Eucaryotes ~ 6.000-30.000 genes Some genes are conserved throughout species, others evolve rapidly Part of rRNA gene New genes are generated from preexisting genes Families of evolutionary related genes in Bacillus subtilis Homologs, orthologs, paralogs … A complex family of homologous genes Genes can be transferred between organism Viral gene transfer (T4 bacteriophage) Horizontal gene transfer in early evolution – cell promiscuity Mutations reveal functions of genes Schizosaccharomyces pombe The genome of Escherichia coli Structure of an eucaryotic cell Eucaryotic cells may have originated as predators Phagocytosis by human white blood cell Carnivorous protozoan Didinium eating other cell A mitochondrion The origin of mitochondria Chloroplasts The origin of chloroplasts Comparison of genome sizes Gene expression as response to extracellular signals Genetic control of multicellular development Simplest unicellular eucaryotes – the protists Yeasts – the minimal model eucaryotes Saccharomyces cerevisiae The reproductive cycles of Saccharomyces cerevisiae DNA microarray – a tool for studying expression of genes Interaction map of regulatory proteins in yeast Model organisms – Arabidopsis thaliana, Drosophila melanogaster, Caenorhabditis elegans Genetic redundancy Xenopus tropicalis - normal diploid genome Xenopus laevis - doubled diploid genome Genetic redundancy complicates studies of gene functions Times of evolutionary divergence of different vertebrates Phylogenetic tree of eukaryotes (hemoglobin genes) The Mouse – genetic model for humans Mutation in the kit gene A „real passion“ for Molecular biology Rhodes Island, Greece High summer season