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Chapter 18: Social Behavior Social psychology: scientific study of how individuals think, behave, and feel in social situations -belong to many overlapping social groups -families, teams, churchgroups, work groups -in each group, we have a position in the structure of the group -social roles: patterns of behavior expected in various social positions -different expectations for role of mother, student, boss Ascribed roles: assigned, not under personal control -male, son, adolescent Achieved roles: voluntary, obtained by special effort -spouse, teacher Role conflicts: 2 or more roles make conflicting demands on behavior -teacher flunking her friend’s child -mother with full-time job Zimbardo: college students assigned roles as guards or prisoners in simulated prison -after 2 days, prisoners became restless and defiant -guards became brutal Group structure and cohesion -group structure: network of roles, communication pathways and power in a group -group cohesiveness: degree of attraction among group members or their commitment to remaining in group -cohesive group: sit closer, listen better to each other -better at working together and solving problems Status: individual’s position in a social structure, especially with respect to power, privilege, or importance -people more compliant with request from well-dressed person Norms: accepted standard for appropriate behavior -not sing loudly in grocery store -more likely to litter if litter already there -convergence of attitudes, beliefs, and behavior 2 Personal Space -area surrounding the body that is regarded as private and subject to personal control -waiting in line, casual conversation, formal business -proxemics: systematic study of rules for personal space Spatial Norms -cultural differences -face-to-face interactions in N. America -intimate distance: 18 inches -special people or circumstances: making love, cuddling children -personal distance: 18 inches to 4 feet -social distance: 4 to 12 feet -impersonal business; casual social gatherings -public distance 12 feet or more -lectures Social perception Attribution: process of making inferences about the causes of one’s own behavior and that of others Attribution Theory -consistency (behavior changes little across occasions) -distinctiveness (behavior occurs only in specific circumstances) Deduce causes of behavior -take into account actor, observer, setting, situational demands, consensus Actor and observer -fundamental attribution error: tending to attribute behavior of others to internal causes -actor-observer bias: attribute one’s own behavior to external causes -tendency to attribute men’s success to skill and women’s to luck Need for affiliation -need to associate with other people -basic human trait -told getting shocked: most females preferred to wait with others. -prefer to be with people in circumstances similar to ours -social comparisons as guide for behavior 3 Social comparison theory -fulfilled by group membership -compare self with others when no objective standards -meaningful evals based on comparisons with those of similar background, abilities, circumstances -influences which groups we join -downward comparisons: decrease in work hours not as bad as friend without job, offers comfort -upward comparisons may either discourage or motivate Interpersonal attraction -affinity to another person -choice of friends based on physical proximity Physical attractiveness -degree of physical beauty, as defined by this culture -beautiful rated as more appealing, intelligent, warm -beauty does not correlate with IQ or talent -halo effect: tendency to generalize a favorable first impression to unrelated personal characteristics -in females, looks are related to dating frequency, not for men -takes more than beauty to make a lasting impression Competence: attracted to people who are competent but imperfect Similarity: pick friends similar in age, race, sex -reinforce our attitudes, beliefs Self-disclosure: reveal private thoughts feelings, personal history -essential in close relationships -over disclose: suspicion -moderate disclosure: reciprocity General friendships -in N. America, most male friendships are activity-based: companionship without closeness -female friendships based on shared feelings and confidences Social exchange theory -transfers of attention, information, affection, favors -people try to maximize rewards by minimizing costs -unconsciously weight social rewards and costs -balance based on past relationships -for relationship to last, must be profitable enough to both parties 4 Liking: affection without passion or deep commitment Loving: deep mutual absorption -attend almost exclusively to each other -idealize each other, overlook faults Love and Attachment -early attachments in childhood impact how we relate to others -secure attachment: stable and positive emotional bond -caring, intimacy, understanding, support -comfortable depending on others -avoidant attachment style: fear of intimacy, resistance to commitment -hard to trust, depend on others -ambivalent attachment style: mixed emotions about relationships -see self as misunderstood, Unappreciated Evolution and Mate Selection -evolutionary psychology: study of origins of human behavior patterns -males: -more interested in casual sex -younger, attractive partners -more jealous over sexual infidelity than loss of emotional Commitment -females: -slightly older partners who are industrious, higher in status or economically successful -more upset by male’s emotional involvement with others than sexual infidelity -females invest more time and energy in reproduction and nurturing young than men -evolved: interest if partners will stay with them and have resources to provide for children -males: reproductive success depends on mates’ fertility -health, youth, beauty Social Influence -changes in behavior induced by actions of another -daily behavior most influenced by group pressure for conformity -conformity: bring one’s behavior into agreement with norms, behavior of Others 5 Asch experiment -group matches line -you agree with group for several trials, then disagree -75% yielded t group at least one time -more likely to conform: lack of self-confidence, anxious, want approval Group factors in conformity Group Sanction -rewards and punishment (such as approval and disapproval) administered by groups to enforce conformity among members Social Power -capacity to control, alter, influence behavior of others -reward power: ability to reward others for compliance -teachers, bosses -coercive power: ability to punish person for failure to comply -laws, fines -legitimate power: accepting a person as an agent of established social order -elected officials, teachers -referent power: respect for identification with person or group -expert power: recognition that other person has knowledge necessary for achieving goal -psychologist, M.D., plumber -power in one situation may not be powerful in another situation Obedience -Milgram -teacher read list of words to learner -learned shocked for each mistake -increased shock with each mistake -heart condition, screams, told to continue -65% obeyed and administered highest shock -decreased with teacher and learner in same room -more decrease if face-to-face Compliance -foot in the door effect -person first agrees to small request, then more likely to comply with larger demand 6 -door-in-the-face effect -refuse a major request, later agree to small request -low-ball technique -getting person committed to act than making terms less desirable -give person money, they say they need it for 1 month -give them a ride, they need to get there earlier -passive compliance -quietly bending to unreasonable demands -take test, loud noise, few complain