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Chapter 6 Learning Classical conditioning Learning – relatively durable change in an organism’s behavior due to experience Ivan Pavlov Terminology – – – – Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Unconditioned Response (UCR) Conditioned Response (CR) Table of Contents Table of Contents Table of Contents Table of Contents Table of Contents Table of Contents Table of Contents Classical Conditioning: More Terminology Trial = pairing of UCS and CS Acquisition = initial stage in learning Stimulus contiguity = occurring together in time and space 3 types of Classical Conditioning – Simultaneous conditioning: CS and UCS begin and end together – Short-delayed conditioning: CS begins just before the UCS, end together – Trace conditioning: CS begins and ends before UCS is presented Table of Contents Processes in Classical Conditioning Extinction Spontaneous Recovery Stimulus Generalization Discrimination Higher-order conditioning Table of Contents Table of Contents Table of Contents Behaviorism John B. Watson viewed psychology as objective science generally agreed-upon consensus today recommended study of behavior without reference to unobservable mental processes not universally accepted by all schools of thought today Table of Contents Watson took a a baby named Albert and conditioned him to be afraid of white furry objects using Pavlov’s techniques. Watson & Raynor with Little Albert Table of Contents Table of Contents Conditional Training: Little Albert Conditioned fear experiments such as Albert’s experience would never occur today because of the existing ethical standards. Table of Contents Table of Contents Operant Conditioning or Instrumental Learning Edward L. Thorndike (1913) – the law of effect B.F. Skinner (1953) – principle of reinforcement – – – – Operant chamber (Skinner Box) Emission of response Reinforcement contingencies Cumulative recorder Table of Contents Table of Contents Table of Contents Basic Processes in Operant Conditioning Acquisition Shaping Extinction Spontaneous Recovery Stimulus Control – Generalization – Discrimination Table of Contents Table of Contents Table of Contents Reinforcement: Consequences that Strengthen Responses Delayed Reinforcement – Longer delay, slower conditioning Primary Reinforcers – Satisfy biological needs Secondary Reinforcers – Conditioned reinforcement Table of Contents Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous reinforcement – faster extinction Intermittent (partial) reinforcement – greater resistance to extinction Ratio schedules (number) – Fixed (set) – Variable (random) Interval schedules (time) – Fixed – Variable Table of Contents Table of Contents Consequences: Reinforcement and Punishment Increasing a response: – Positive (+) reinforcement = response followed by rewarding stimulus (Give them something they want, ie a candy bar) – Negative (-) reinforcement = response followed by removal of an aversive stimulus (Take away something that is annoying/bothering/hurting them, ie nagging, seat belt tone) • Escape learning (open umbrella after you’re wet) • Avoidance learning (open umbrella before it rains) Decreasing a response: – Positive Punishment = presentation of an aversive stimulus (give them something they do not want, ie detention, fine – Negative Punishment = removal of a rewarding stimulus (take away something they want, ie cell phone, car Table of Contents Punishment Table of Contents Table of Contents Table of Contents Table of Contents Problems with Punishment (Spanking) Does not teach or promote alternative, acceptable behavior May produce undesirable results such as hostility, passivity, fear Likely to be temporary May model aggression (Bandura Bobo doll experiment) Table of Contents Table of Contents Biological Predispositions John Garcia Conditioned taste aversions Not all neutral stimuli can become conditioned stimuli. Internal stimuli—associate better with taste External stimuli—associate better with pain Biological preparedness Table of Contents Changes in Our Understanding of Conditioning Biological Constraints on Conditioning – Instinctive Drift – Conditioned Taste Aversion – Preparedness and Phobias Cognitive Influences on Conditioning – Signal relations – predicive value based on experience – Response-outcome relations – causal relationship • Cognitive processes play a large role in conditioning Table of Contents Signal Relations Robert Rescorla conducted research around the cognitive element in conditioning Environmental stimuli serve as signals Some stimuli are better and more dependable than others Rescorla manipulated signal relations in classical conditioning signals Table of Contents Signal Relations (ii) CS-UCS relations influence whether a CS is a good signal A ‘good’ signal is one that follows accurate prediction of the UCS Example: For one group of rats the CS (tone) and UCS (shock) paired in 100% of the experimental trials For another group the CS and UCS are paired in of the trials are only 50% Table of Contents The predictive value of CS The two groups of rats have had an equal number of CS-UCS pairings CS is a better signal or predictor of shock for the 100% UCS group than for the 50% CS-UCS group CS- This difference must be due to the greater predictive power of the CS for the 100% group The predictive value of a CS is an influential factor governing classical conditioning Table of Contents Response-Outcome Relations and Reinforcement Response-outcome relations and reinforcement highlight of cognitive processes in conditioning Reinforcement is not automatic when favourable follow a response the role consequences Individuals actively reason out the relation between responses and the outcomes that follow The response is more likely to be strengthened if the thinks that the response caused the outcome person Table of Contents Response-Outcome Relations and Reinforcement (ii) Animals also engage in causal reasoning They recognise causal relations between responses and outcomes Identifying the contingencies among environmental events Stimuli are viewed as signals that help animals minimize their aversive experiences and maximize their pleasant experiences Table of Contents Observational Learning: Basic Processes Albert Bandura (1977, 1986) – Observational learning – Vicarious conditioning 4 key processes – – – – attention retention reproduction motivation acquisition vs. performance Latent learning Cognitive maps Learned helplessness Table of Contents Observational Learning Mirror Neurons frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy Table of Contents 1) paid 10 dollars for every 20 puzzles solved 2) studying for a class that has surprise quizzes ______________________ slot machines are based on this 3) schedule 4) ________________________ trolling for fish in a lake in the summer 5) speed traps on highways 6) _______________________ selling a product door to door 7) getting the clothes out of the dryer once it buzzes 8) going up a staircase to reach a landing with a nice view 9) ______________________ doing 20 pushups to help stay fit Table of Contents 10) 11) 12) 13) _____ playing Bingo ______getting a paycheck at the end of 2 weeks _______drug testing ________a strike in bowling 14) calling your mechanic to see if your car is fixed yet 15) — frequent flyer program where one gets a free flight after a specific number of miles flown Table of Contents 16) _______________________ child screams and cries in store to get what he wants—every so often it works 17) ______________________ child who likes to hear theme music from Jeopardy every night at 7 pm 18) trying to find a parking spot in Metropolis with a meter that works 19) _______________________ wife is watching boxing match with husband- she receives a kiss at the end of every 3-minute round 20) ______________________ waiting for a sunny day to go to the beach Table of Contents Table of Contents Table of Contents Table of Contents