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Chapter 6
Learning
Classical conditioning

Learning
– relatively durable change in an organism’s behavior due
to experience
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
Ivan Pavlov
Terminology
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Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
Conditioned Response (CR)
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Classical Conditioning: More
Terminology

Trial = pairing of UCS and CS
 Acquisition = initial stage in learning
 Stimulus contiguity = occurring together in time and
space
 3 types of Classical Conditioning
– Simultaneous conditioning: CS and UCS begin and end
together
– Short-delayed conditioning: CS begins just before the
UCS, end together
– Trace conditioning: CS begins and ends before UCS is
presented
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Processes in Classical Conditioning
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Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
Stimulus Generalization
Discrimination
Higher-order conditioning
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Behaviorism

John B. Watson
 viewed psychology as
objective science
 generally agreed-upon
consensus today
 recommended study of
behavior without reference
to unobservable mental
processes
 not universally accepted by all
schools of thought today
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Watson took a a baby named Albert and conditioned him to be
afraid of white furry objects using Pavlov’s techniques.
Watson & Raynor with Little Albert
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Conditional Training:
Little Albert
Conditioned fear
experiments such as
Albert’s experience
would never occur
today because of the
existing ethical
standards.
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Operant Conditioning or Instrumental
Learning
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Edward L. Thorndike (1913) – the law of effect
B.F. Skinner (1953) – principle of reinforcement
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Operant chamber (Skinner Box)
Emission of response
Reinforcement contingencies
Cumulative recorder
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Basic Processes in Operant
Conditioning
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Acquisition
Shaping
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
Stimulus Control
– Generalization
– Discrimination
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Reinforcement: Consequences that
Strengthen Responses

Delayed Reinforcement
– Longer delay, slower conditioning

Primary Reinforcers
– Satisfy biological needs

Secondary Reinforcers
– Conditioned reinforcement
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Schedules of Reinforcement
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Continuous reinforcement – faster extinction
Intermittent (partial) reinforcement – greater
resistance to extinction
Ratio schedules (number)
– Fixed (set)
– Variable (random)

Interval schedules (time)
– Fixed
– Variable
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Consequences: Reinforcement and
Punishment

Increasing a response:
– Positive (+) reinforcement = response followed by
rewarding stimulus (Give them something they want, ie a
candy bar)
– Negative (-) reinforcement = response followed by removal
of an aversive stimulus (Take away something that is
annoying/bothering/hurting them, ie nagging, seat belt tone)
• Escape learning (open umbrella after you’re wet)
• Avoidance learning (open umbrella before it rains)
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Decreasing a response:
– Positive Punishment = presentation of an aversive stimulus
(give them something they do not want, ie detention, fine
– Negative Punishment = removal of a rewarding stimulus
(take away something they want, ie cell phone, car
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Punishment
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Problems with Punishment (Spanking)
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Does not teach or promote alternative, acceptable
behavior
May produce undesirable results such as hostility,
passivity, fear
Likely to be temporary
May model aggression (Bandura Bobo doll
experiment)
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Biological Predispositions

John Garcia
Conditioned taste aversions
 Not all neutral stimuli can become conditioned stimuli.
 Internal stimuli—associate better with taste
 External stimuli—associate better with pain
 Biological preparedness
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Changes in Our Understanding of
Conditioning

Biological Constraints on Conditioning
– Instinctive Drift
– Conditioned Taste Aversion
– Preparedness and Phobias
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Cognitive Influences on Conditioning
– Signal relations – predicive value based on experience
– Response-outcome relations – causal relationship
• Cognitive processes play a large role in conditioning
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Signal Relations
Robert Rescorla conducted research around the cognitive
element in conditioning
Environmental stimuli serve as signals
Some stimuli are better and more dependable
than others
Rescorla manipulated signal relations in classical
conditioning
signals
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Signal Relations (ii)
CS-UCS relations influence whether a CS is a good signal
A ‘good’ signal is one that follows
accurate prediction of the UCS
Example:
 For one group of rats the CS (tone) and UCS (shock)
paired in 100% of the experimental trials
 For another group the CS and UCS are paired in
of the trials
are
only 50%
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The predictive value of CS
 The two groups of rats have had an equal number of CS-UCS
pairings
 CS is a better signal or predictor of shock for the 100%
UCS group than for the 50% CS-UCS group
CS-
 This difference must be due to the greater predictive power of
the CS for the 100% group
The predictive value of a CS is an influential factor governing
classical conditioning
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Response-Outcome Relations and
Reinforcement
Response-outcome relations and reinforcement highlight
of cognitive processes in conditioning
Reinforcement is not automatic when favourable
follow a response
the role
consequences
Individuals actively reason out the relation between
responses and the outcomes that follow
The response is more likely to be strengthened if the
thinks that the response caused the outcome
person
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Response-Outcome Relations and
Reinforcement (ii)
Animals also engage in causal reasoning
They recognise causal relations between responses
and outcomes
Identifying the contingencies among environmental events
Stimuli are viewed as signals that help animals minimize
their
aversive experiences and maximize their pleasant
experiences
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Observational Learning: Basic
Processes

Albert Bandura (1977, 1986)
– Observational learning
– Vicarious conditioning
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4 key processes
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attention
retention
reproduction
motivation
acquisition vs. performance
Latent learning
Cognitive maps
Learned helplessness
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Observational Learning

Mirror Neurons
 frontal lobe neurons that fire when
performing certain actions or when
observing another doing so
 may enable imitation, language
learning, and empathy
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1)
paid 10 dollars for every 20 puzzles solved
2)
studying for a class that has surprise quizzes
______________________ slot machines are based on this
3)
schedule
4)
________________________ trolling for fish in a lake in the
summer
5)
speed traps on highways
6)
_______________________ selling a product door to door
7)
getting the clothes out of the dryer once it
buzzes
8)
going up a staircase to reach a landing with a
nice view
9)
______________________ doing 20 pushups to help stay fit
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10)
11)
12)
13)
_____ playing Bingo
______getting a paycheck at the end of 2 weeks
_______drug testing
________a strike in bowling
14)
calling your mechanic to see if your car is
fixed yet
15)
— frequent flyer program where one gets a
free flight after a specific number of miles flown
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16)
_______________________ child screams and cries in store to get
what he wants—every so often it works
17)
______________________ child who likes to hear theme music from
Jeopardy every night at 7 pm
18)
trying to find a parking spot in Metropolis with a
meter that works
19)
_______________________ wife is watching boxing match with
husband- she receives a kiss at the end of every 3-minute round
20)
______________________ waiting for a sunny day to go to the
beach
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