Download theories of learning

THEORIES OF LEARNING
BEHAVIORISM AND COGNITIVISM- THE BASICS
OUTLINE
A: BEHAVIOURISM
1- DEFINITION
2- THE BASICS OF BEHAVIOURISM
2-1) CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
2-2) OPERANT CONDITIONING
3- APPLYING THE BEHAVIOURISTIC THEORY TO LEARNING
B: COGNITIVISM
1- DEFINITION
2- MAJOR THEORIST AND THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS
3- BASIC CONCEPTS
4. GENERAL EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF COGNITIVE THEORIES
C: BEHAVIORISM AND COGNITIVISM- SOME STRENGTHS AND
WEAKNESSES
A: BEHAVIOURISM
1- DEFINITION
Behaviourism: Based on observable changes in behaviour, behaviorism focuses on a new
behavioral pattern being repeated until it becomes automatic.
2- THE BASICS OF BEHAVIOURISM
The theory of behaviourism concentrates on the study of overt behaviors that can be
observed and measured (Good & brophy, 1990). It views the mind as a “black box” in the
sense that Response to stimulus can be observed quantitatively, totally ignoring the
possibility of Thought processes occurring in the mind. Some key players in the
development of the Behaviourist theory were Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike and Skinner.
2-1) classical conditioning
Pavlov (1849- 1936):
For most people the name Pavlov rings a bell ( pun intended). the Russian physiologist is
best known for his work in classical conditioning or stimulus
substitution. Pavlov’s
most famous experiment involved food, a dog, and a bell.
Pavlov’s experiment
●Before conditioning, ringing the bell caused no response from the dog. Placing food in
front the dog initiated salivation.
●During conditioning, the bell was rung a few seconds before the dog was presented
with food.
●After conditioning, the ringing of the bell alone produced salivation.
STIMULUS- RESPONSE ITEMS OF PAVLOV’S EXPERIMENT
Food
unconditioned stimulus
Salivation
unconditioned response (natural, not learned)
Bell
conditioned stimulus
Salivation
conditioned response ( to bell)
Other observations made by Pavlov
●Stimulus Generalization: once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of the bell,
it will salivate at other similar sounds.
●Extinction: if you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will eventually cease
in response to the bell.
●Spontaneous recovery: Extinguished responses can be “recovered” after an elapsed
time, but will soon extinguish again if the dog is not presented with food.
●Discrimination: the dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells (stimuli)
and discern which bell would result in the presentation of food and which would not.
●Higher-order conditioning: once the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell
with food, another unconditioned stimulus, such as a light
may be flashed at the
same time that the bell is rung. Eventually the dog will salivate at the flash of the light
without the sound of the bell.
2-2) operant conditioning
Skinner (1904-1990)
Like Pavlov, Watson and Thorndike, skinner believed in the stimulus- response pattern
of conditioned behaviour. His theory dealt with changes in observable behaviour,
ignoring the possibility of any processes occurring in the mind. Skinner’s 1984 book,
Walden Two, is about an utopian society based on operant conditioning. He also
wrote , Science and Human behaviour,(1953) in which he pointed out how the
principles of
operant conditioning function in social institutions such as government,
law, religion, economics and education (Dembo, 1994).
Skinner’s work differs from that of his predecessors (classical conditioning), in that he
studied operant behaviour (voluntary behaviours used in operating on the
environment).
Skinner’s operant conditioning Mechanisms
●Positive reinforcement or reward: Responses that are rewarded are likely to be
repeated. (Good grades reinforce careful study.)
●Negative Reinforcement: Responses that allow escape from painful or undesirable
situations are likely to be repeated. (Being executed from writing a final because of
good term work)
●Extinction or non-reinforcement: responses that are not reinforced are not likely to be
repeated. (Ignoring student misbehaviour should extinguish that behaviour.)
●Punishment: Responses that bring painful or undesirable consequences will be
suppressed, but may reappear if reinforcement contingencies change. (Penalizing late
students by withdrawing privileges should stop their lateness.)
Difference between classical and operant conditioning
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
Unconditioned stimulus
(food)
Unconditioned stimulus
(food)
Conditioned stimulus
(bell)
Conditioned stimulus
(bell)
Unconditioned response
(salivation)
Unconditioned response
(salivation)
Conditioned response
(salivation)
In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a reflex. The bell, a neutral
stimulus, becomes associated with the reflex of salivation.
Operant (instrumental) conditioning (Skinner)
Response
( press lever)
Stimulus(reward)
(food)
TIME
Conditioned response
(Press lever)
Conditioned stimulus
(Reward)( food)
In operant conditioning, the learner “operates” on the environment and receives a reward for
certain behaviour (operations). Eventually the bond between the operation (pressing the lever) and
the reward stimulus (Food) is established.
3- applying the behaviouristic theory to learning
Stimulus
organism
response
reinforcement
Behaviour
Intrinsic
Extrinsic
Self
Verbal behaviour
Stimulating what is
taught/presented in
the FL
Foreign
Learner’s
Approval
satisfuction
language
reaction to the
(teacher/
of target
learner
stimulus
praises)
language
use
B: COGNITIVISM
1. DEFINITION
Cognitivism: Based on the thought process behind the behaviour. Changes in behaviour are
observed, and used as indicators as to what is happening inside the learner’s mind.
2-MAJOR THEORISTS AND THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS
Edward Tolman:
A prominent learning theorist during the heyday of behaviourism, yet his work had a
distinctly cognitive flair. Tolman developed his mentalistic view of learning by using
Adaptive versions of behaviourist research. There are several central ideas of his
theory:
1.
Behavior should be studied at a molar level.
2.
Learning can occur without reinforcement.
3.
Learning can occur without a change in behaviour.
4.
Intervening variables must be considered.
5.
Behavior is purposive
6.
Expectations affect behaviour.
7.
Learning results in an organized body of information.
Jean Piaget:
Piaget focused on mental events- logical reasoning processes and the structure of
knowledge. Incorporates such diverse topics as language, logical reasoning, moral
judgements, and conceptions of time, space, and number. The major components of
Piaget’s research involve the following:
1. People are active processors of information.
2. knowledge can be described in terms of structures that change with
development.
3. Cognitive development results from the interactions that children have with
their physical and social environments.
4. the process through which people interact with the environment remain
constant.
5. People are intrinsically motivated to try to make sense of the world around
them.
6. cognitive development occurs in distinct stages, with thought processes at
each stage being qualitatively different from those of other stages.
Lev Vygotsky
Vygotsky died at a young age, but had several influential ideas in the field of
cognitivism, such as:
1. complex mental processes begin as social activities; as children develop, they
gradually internalize these processes and can use them independently of those
around them.
2. Thought and language initially develop independently of each other; the two
become
independent when children are about two years old.
3. children can accomplish more difficult tasks when they have the assistance of
people more advanced and competent than themselves.
4.
Tasks within the zone of proximal development promote maximum
cognitive growth.
3. BASIC CONCEPTS
Learning vs. Memory
Learning is the acquisition of new information. Memory is related to the ability to recall
information that has previously been learned.
Storage: The process of “putting” new information in memory.
Encoding: The process of storing information in memory and modifying it in some way.
Retrieval: The process by which people “find” information they have previously stored
in memory, so that they can use it again.
During this information processing there are various things to consider
Characteristic of the sensory register
1. Capacity
2. Form of storage
3. Duration
Factors influencing attention
1. Size
2. Intensity
3. Novelty
4. Incomgruity
5. Emotion
6. Personal significance
Characteristics of working Memory:
Information is constantly processed throught the sensory registers. There are various
factors that influence an individual’s ability to process information. Information goes
into our short-term/working memory for mere seconds.
1. capacity
2. Form of storage
3. Duration
Controle processes in working memory:
We organize the information and decide what to keep and what to discard. Stored
information is in our long-term memory for later retrieval.
1. Organization
2. Retrieval
3. Mainenance Rehearsal
Characteristics of long-Term memory
1. capacity
2. Form of storage
3. Duration
Controle processes in long-Term Memory
1. Storage
2. Retrieval
4. General educational implications of cognitive theories:
1. Cognitive processes influence learning.
2. As children grow, they become capable of increasingly more sophisticated
thought.
3. People organize the things they learn.
4. New information is most easily acquired when people can associate it with
Things they have already learned.
5. People controle their own learning.
C: BEHAVIORISM AND COGNITIVISM- SOME STRENGTHS
AND WEAKNESSES
Behaviorism
Weakness- the learner may find themselves in a situation where the stimulus for the
correct response does not occur, therefore the learner cannot respond. – A
worker who has been conditioned to respond to a certain cue at work stops
production when an anomaly occurs because they do not understand the
system.
Strength- the learner is focused on a clear goal and can respond automatically to the cues
of that goal. – W.W.II pilots were conditioned to react to silhouettes of enemy
planes, a response which one would hope became automatic.
Cognitivism
Weakness- the learner learns a way to accomplish a task, but it may not be the best way,
or suited to the learner or the situation. For example, logging onto the internet
on one computer may not be the same as logging in another computer.
Strength- the goal is to train learners to do a task the same way to enable consistency.
-Logging onto and off of a workplace computer is the same for all employees;
it may be important do an exact routine to avoid problems.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
1) Mergel. Brenda. Instructional design and learning theory. University of saskat chewan,
1998
2) Vigotsky,L.S. thought and language. Cambridge, MA: Mit Press, 1962
WEBLIOGRAPHY:
1)http://www2.yk.psu.edu/~jlg18/506/pdf%20Files/instructional%20design/instructional
%20by%20Mengal.pdf
2) www. Usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/Brenda.htm
3) http://suedstudent.syr.edu/%7Eebarrett/ide621/cognit...