Download Module 5.1 Classical Conditioning

CHAPTER 5
Learning
MODULE 5.1 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: LEARNING
THROUGH ASSOCIATION LECTURE OUTLINE
Refer to the Concept Web at the end of this manual for a visual synopsis of all concepts presented
in this module.
I.
Ivan Pavlov was a Russian scientist
A. Pavlov accidentally discovered that dogs would salivate to particular sounds in his
laboratory, which led him to identify classical conditioning (Figure 5.1)
II. Principles of Classical Conditioning (Concept Chart 5.1)
A. Pavlov harnessed a dog and placed food (US) on the dog’s tongue and dog salivated
(UR). Then Pavlov paired food with a tone or buzzer (CS), and eventually the tone or
buzzer made the dog salivate (CR) (Figure 5.2)
1. The UR is a reflexive behavior such as salivation
2. The US is a stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response
3. A neutral stimulus (NS) is a stimulus that does not initially elicit a response
4. The CR occurs through repeated pairings of the neutral stimulus and the US
5. The CS is when a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an US
and begins to elicit the CR LB 5.1, LB 5.2
B. Extinction—the CR will gradually weaken and eventually disappear when CS is
presented in the absence of the US (Figure 5.3)
1. Spontaneous recovery—the CR will suddenly appear in response to a CS
2. Reconditioning—when CS and US are paired together the CR is likely to be
learned more quickly
C. Stimulus generalization—CR elicited by stimuli similar to original CS (Figure 5.4)
D. Stimulus discrimination—ability to differentiate among related stimuli
E. Higher-order conditioning—a previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit a CR when it
is paired with a CS that already produces the CR
F. Stimulus characteristics that strengthen CR
1. Frequency: More often the CS is paired with the US the stronger the CR will be
2. Timing: Strongest CR occurs when the CS is presented first and remains present
throughout the administration of the US
3. Intensity: Stronger US will typically lead to faster conditioning than a weaker
one
III. A Cognitive Perspective on Classical Conditioning
A. In Rescorla’s view, classical conditioning involves a cognitive process by which
organisms learn to anticipate events based on cues that reliably predict the events
B. Important survival implications—early warning system
IV. Examples of Classical Conditioning
A.
V.
Classical conditioning helps explain the development of conditioned emotional
reactions, such as conditioned fear responses (e.g., phobias) and positive emotions
B. Principles of classical conditioning may help explain phenomena that range from drug
cravings to acquired taste aversion LB 5.3
Conditioning the Immune System
A. Even immune-system responses can be classically conditioned
B. Possible medical benefits by pairing odors with treatment drugs
MODULE 5.2 OPERANT CONDITIONING: LEARNING
THROUGH CONSEQUENCES LECTURE OUTLINE
Refer to the Concept Web at the end of this manual for a visual synopsis of all concepts presented
in this module.
I.
Thorndike and the Law of Effect
A. According to Thorndike’s Law of Effect, we are more likely to repeat responses that
have satisfying effects and are less likely to repeat those that lead to discomfort
B. Through trial and error, accidental successes become “stamped in” by positive
consequences
II. B. F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning
A. B. F. Skinner believed that human behavior is completely determined by
environmental and genetic influences (radical behaviorism) (See Reality Check, LB
5.4)
B. Operant conditioning is the process of learning in which the consequences of a
response (operant response) determine the chance that the response will be repeated
C. Skinner showed how superstitious behavior can be learned
III. Principles of Operant Conditioning (Concept Chart 5.2)
A. Discriminative stimuli set the stage for reinforcement as cues that signal that
reinforcement is available if the subject makes a particular response
B. Positive and negative reinforcement (Figure 5.9) LB 5.5, LB 5.6
1. In positive reinforcement, the introduction of a reward strengthens response
2. In negative reinforcement, the removal of an aversive stimulus strengthens
response
C. Primary and secondary reinforcers
1. Primary reinforcers—satisfy basic needs
2. Secondary reinforcers—work from association with primary reinforcers
D. Shaping—learning that involves the reinforcement of increasingly closer
approximations of the correct response
E. Extinction—weakening and eventual elimination of a response that occurs when the
response is no longer reinforced
IV. Schedules of Reinforcement
A. In a schedule of continuous reinforcement, reinforcement follows each instance of
operant response
B. In a schedule of partial reinforcement, only a portion of responses is reinforced
1. In ratio schedules, reinforcement is based on the number of responses
2. In interval schedules, reinforcement is based on the timing of responses
a.
Fixed-ratio (FR)
b. Variable-ratio (VR)
c.
Fixed-interval (FI)
d. Variable-interval (VI) LB 5.7, LB 5.8
V. Escape Learning and Avoidance Learning
A. In escape learning, organisms learn responses to escape aversive stimuli
B. In avoidance learning, they learn responses that prevent aversive stimuli
VI. Punishment (Figure 5.11, Table 5.2)
A. Punishment involves the introduction of an aversive stimulus or the removal of a
reinforcing stimulus after a response, which leads to the weakening or suppression of
the response LB 5.4, LB 5.9
VII. Applications of Operant Conditioning
A. Biofeedback training
B. Behavior modification
C. Programmed instruction
VIII. Drawbacks of punishment (See Exploring Psychology, LB 5.10)
A. May suppress undesirable behavior, but it doesn’t eliminate it
B. Does not teach new behaviors
C. Can have undesirable consequences
D. May become abusive
E. May represent a form of inappropriate modeling
MODULE 5.3 COGNITIVE LEARNING LECTURE OUTLINE
Refer to the Concept Web at the end of this manual for a visual synopsis of all concepts presented
in this module.
I.
Cognitive Learning (Concept Chart 5.3)
A. Occurs without first performing learned response or being reinforced for it
B. Involves unobserved mental process
II. Insight Learning
A. Wolfgang Kohler studied this by having a chimp try and obtain bananas outside of his
cage; eventually the chimp used a cage to reach the fruit
B. Insight learning is a mental process in which the restructuring of a problem into its
component parts leads to the sudden realization of a solution to the problem LB 5.11
III. Latent Learning
A. Latent learning occurs without apparent reinforcement and is not displayed until
reinforcement is provided
B. Cognitive maps are mental representations of loci such as roads or mazes
C. Implicit learning is when we learn something without conscious awareness LB 5.12
IV. Observational Learning
A. In observational learning, behaviors are acquired by observing and imitating the
behaviors of others
B. Observational learning is also called vicarious learning or modeling LB 5.9
MODULE 5.4 APPLICATION: PUTTING REINFORCEMENT
INTO PRACTICE LECTURE OUTLINE
Refer to the Concept Web at the end of this manual for a visual synopsis of all concepts presented
in this module.
I.
Behavior Modification
A. To modify behavior through reinforcement, it is important to establish a clear
connection, or contingency, between the desired behavior and the reinforcement
II. Applying Reinforcement LB 5.14
A. Identify the specific behavior you want to increase
B. Use specific language to identify the behaviors
C. Identify a reinforcer that is valued, readily available, and can be used repeatedly
D. Explain the contingency or connection between behavior and reinforcement
E. Apply the reinforcer immediately after each occurrence of the desired behavior
F. Track the frequency of the desired behavior
G. Wean away the participant from the reinforcer
III. Giving Praise LB 5.15
A. Make eye contact and smile when giving praise
B. Use hugs
C. Be specific
D. Be sincere
E. Avoid empty flattery
F. Reward the effort, not the outcome
G. Avoid repeating yourself
H. Don’t end on a sour note