Download A2 Chemistry key word list

C2 | Chemistry
Cheltenham College Chemistry Department
Upper Sixth
List of meanings and definition
for A2 Chemistry
You need to know and understand the meanings of these words for OCR
A2 Chemistry
You will be asked some as definitions in the exams and you need to be
precise and accurate.
When revising from the Criteria Checklist, look up the meanings of words
from this list.
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Full word and definitions list for OCR A2 Chemistry
Acid dissociation
constant, Ka
Acid–base pair
A pair of two species that transform into each other by gain or loss
of a proton.
Activation energy
The minimum energy required to start a reaction by the breaking of
bonds.
Addition polymer
A very long molecular chain, formed by repeated addition reactions
of many unsaturated alkene molecules (monomers).
Addition reaction
A reaction in which a reactant is added to an unsaturated molecule
to make a saturated molecule.
Adsorption
The process that occurs when a gas, liquid or solute is held to the
surface of a solid or, more rarely, a liquid.
Alicyclic
hydrocarbon
A hydrocarbon with carbon atoms joined together in a ring structure.
Aliphatic
hydrocarbon
A hydrocarbon with carbon atoms joined together in straight or
branched chains.
Alkali
A type of base that dissolves in water to form hydroxide ions, OH–
(aq) ions.
Alkanes
The homologous series with the general formula: CnH2n+2.
Alkyl group
An alkane with a hydrogen atom removed, e.g. CH3, C2H5; any alkyl
group is often shown as ‘R’.
Amount of
substance
The quantity whose unit is the mole. Chemists use ‘amount of
substance’ as a means of counting atoms.
Anhydrous
A substance that contains no water molecules.
Anion
A negatively charged ion.
Atom economy
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Atomic (proton)
number
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
Atomic orbital
A region within an atom that can hold up to two electrons with
opposite spins.
Average bond
enthalpy
The average enthalpy change that takes place when breaking by
homolytic fission 1 mol of a given type of bond in the molecules of a
gaseous species.
Avogadro’s
constant, NA
The number of atoms per mole of the carbon-12 isotope
(6.02 × 1023 mol–1).
Biodegradable
substance
A substance that is broken down naturally in the environment by
other living organisms.
Biodegradable
polymer
A polymer that breaks down completely into carbon dioxide and
water.
Boltzmann
distribution
A diagram showing the distribution of energies of the molecules at a
particular temperature.
Bond dissociation
enthalpy
The enthalpy change that takes place when breaking by homolytic
fission 1 mol of a given bond in the molecules of a gaseous species.
Brønsted–Lowry
acid
A species that is a proton, H+, donor.
Brønsted–Lowry
base
A species that is a proton, H+, acceptor.
Buffer solution
A system that minimises pH changes on addition of small amounts
of an acid or a base.
Carbanion
An organic ion in which a carbon atom has a negative charge.
Carbocation
An organic ion in which a carbon atom has a positive charge.
Catalyst
A substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without
being used up in the process.
Cation
A positively charged ion.
Chemical shift
A scale that compares the frequency of an NMR absorption with the
frequency of the reference peak of TMS at δ = 0 ppm.
Chiral carbon
A carbon atom attached to four different atoms or groups of atoms.
Chromatogram
A visible record showing the result of separation of the components
of a mixture by chromatography.
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cis–trans
isomerism
A special type of E/Z isomerism in which each carbon of the C=C
double bond carries the same atom or group: the cis isomer
(Z isomer) has that group on each carbon on the same side; the
trans isomer (E isomer) has that group on each carbon on different
sides.
Complex ion
A transition metal ion bonded to one or more ligands by coordinate
bonds (dative covalent bonds).
Concentration
The amount of solute, in mol, per 1 dm3 (1000 cm3) of solution.
Condensation
reaction
A reaction in which two small molecules react together to form a
larger molecule with the elimination of a small molecule such as
water.
Conjugate acid
A species formed when a proton is added to a base.
Conjugate base
A species formed when a proton is added to an acid.
Coordinate bond
A shared pair of electrons in which the bonded pair has been
provided by one of the bonding atoms only; also called a dative
covalent bond.
Coordination
number
The total number of coordinate bonds formed between the central
metal ion and any ligands.
Covalent bond
A bond formed by a shared pair of electrons.
Cracking
The breaking down of long-chained saturated hydrocarbons to form
a mixture of shorter-chained alkanes and alkenes.
Curly arrow
A symbol used in reaction mechanisms to show the movement of
an electron pair during the breaking or formation of a covalent
bond.
Dative covalent
A shared pair of electrons in which the bonded pair has been
provided by one of the bonding atoms only; also called a coordinate
bond.
Degradable
polymer
A polymer that breaks down into smaller fragments when exposed
to light, heat or moisture.
Dehydration
An elimination reaction in which water is removed from a saturated
molecule to make an unsaturated molecule.
Delocalised
electrons
Electrons that are shared between more than two atoms.
Dipole–dipole force
An attractive force between permanent dipoles in neighbouring
polar molecules.
Displacement
reaction
A reaction in which a more reactive element displaces a less
reactive element from an aqueous solution of its ions.
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Displayed formula
A formula showing the relative positioning of all the atoms in a
molecule and the bonds between them.
Disproportionation
The oxidation and reduction of the same species in a redox
reaction.
Dynamic
equilibrium
The equilibrium that exists in a closed system when the rate of the
forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction.
E/Z isomerism
A type of stereoisomerism in which different groups attached to
each carbon of a C=C double bond may be arranged differently in
space because of the restricted rotation of the C=C bond.
(First) electron
affinity
The enthalpy change required to add one electron to each atom in
one mole of gaseous atoms to form one mole of gaseous 1– ions.
(Second) electron
affinity
The enthalpy change required to add one electron to each ion in
one mole of gaseous 1– ions to form one mole of gaseous 2– ions.
Electron shielding
The repulsion between electrons in different inner shells. Shielding
reduces the net attractive force from the positive nucleus on the
outer shell electrons.
Electron(ic)
structure or
configuration
The arrangement of electrons in an atom.
Electronegativity
A measure of the attraction of a bonded atom for the pair of
electrons in a covalent bond.
Electrophile
An atom (or group of atoms) which is attracted to an electron-rich
centre or atom, where it accepts a pair of electrons to form a new
covalent bond.
Electrophilic
substitution
A type of substitution reaction in which an electrophile is attracted
to an electron-rich centre or atom, where it accepts a pair of
electrons to form a new covalent bond.
Elimination
reaction
The removal of a molecule from a saturated molecule to make an
unsaturated molecule.
Empirical formula
The simplest whole-number ratio of atoms of each element present
in a compound.
Enantiomers
Stereoisomers that are non-superimposable mirror images of each
other; also called ‘optical isomers’.
End point
The point in a titration at which there are equal concentrations of
the weak acid and conjugate base forms of the indicator. The colour
at the end point is midway between the colours of the acid and
conjugate base forms.
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Endothermic
A reaction in which the enthalpy of the products is greater than the
enthalpy of the reactants, resulting in heat being taken in from the
surroundings (ΔH +ve).
(Standard) enthalpy
change of
atomisation
The enthalpy change that takes place when one mole of gaseous
atoms forms from the element in its standard state.
(Standard) enthalpy
change of
combustion,
The enthalpy change that takes place when one mole of a
substance reacts completely with oxygen under standard
conditions, all reactants and products being in their standard states.
(Standard) enthalpy
change of
formation,
The enthalpy change that takes place when one mole of a
compound is formed from its constituent elements in their standard
states under standard conditions.
(Standard) enthalpy
change of
hydration
The enthalpy change that takes place when one mole of isolated
gaseous ions is dissolved in water, forming one mole of aqueous
ions, under standard conditions.
(Standard) enthalpy
change of
neutralisation,
The energy change that accompanies the neutralisation of an
aqueous acid by an aqueous base to form one mole of H2O(l),
under standard conditions.
(Standard) enthalpy
change of reaction,
The enthalpy change that accompanies a reaction in the molar
quantities expressed in a chemical equation under standard
conditions, all reactants and products being in their standard states.
(Standard) enthalpy
change of solution
The enthalpy change that takes place when one mole of a
compound is completely dissolved in water under standard
conditions.
Enthalpy cycle
A diagram showing alternative routes between reactants and
products that allows the indirect determination of an enthalpy
change from other known enthalpy changes using Hess’s law.
Enthalpy profile
diagram
A diagram for a reaction to compares the enthalpy of the reactants
with the enthalpy of the products.
Enthalpy, H
The heat content that is stored in a chemical system.
Entropy, S
The quantitative measure of the degree of disorder in a system.
(Standard) entropy
change of reaction,
The entropy change that accompanies a reaction in the molar
quantities expressed in a chemical equation under standard
conditions, all reactants and products being in their standard states.
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Equilibrium law
Equivalence point
The point in a titration at which the volume of one solution has
reacted exactly with the volume of the second solution. This
matches the stoichiometry of the reaction that is taking place.
Esterification
The reaction of an alcohol with a carboxylic acid to produce an
ester and water.
Exothermic
A reaction in which the enthalpy of the products is smaller than the
enthalpy of the reactants, resulting in heat loss to the surroundings
(ΔH –ve).
Fragmentation
The process in mass spectrometry that causes a positive ion to spilt
into pieces, one of which is a positive fragment ion.
Free energy
change, ΔG
The balance between enthalpy, entropy and temperature for a
process: ΔG = ΔH – TΔS. A process can take place spontaneously
when ΔG < 0.
Functional group
The part of the organic molecule responsible for its chemical
reactions.
General formula
The simplest algebraic formula of a member of a homologous
series. For example, the general formula of the alkanes is CnH2n+2.
Giant covalent
lattice
A three-dimensional structure of atoms, bonded together by strong
covalent bonds.
Giant ionic lattice
A three-dimensional structure of oppositely charged ions, bonded
together by strong ionic bonds.
Giant metallic
lattice
A three-dimensional structure of positive ions and delocalised
electrons, bonded together by strong metallic bonds.
Greenhouse effect
The process in which the absorption and subsequent emission of
infrared radiation by atmospheric gases warms the lower
atmosphere and the planet’s surface.
Group
A vertical column in the Periodic Table. Elements in a group have
similar chemical properties and their atoms have the same number
of outer-shell electrons.
Half-life
The time taken for the concentration of a reactant to reduce by half.
Hess’s Law
If a reaction can take place by more than one route and the initial
and final conditions are the same, the total enthalpy change is the
same for each route.
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Heterogeneous
catalysis
A reaction in which the catalyst has a different physical state from
the reactants; frequently reactants are gases whilst the catalyst is a
solid.
Heterogeneous
equilibrium
An equilibrium in which the species making up the reactants and
products are in different physical states.
Heterolytic fission
The breaking of a covalent bond with both of the bonded electrons
going to each atom, forming a cation (+ ion) and an anion (– ion).
High-density
lipoprotein (HDL)
A type of lipoprotein that can remove cholesterol from the arteries
and transport it back to the liver for excretion or re-utilisation.
Homogeneous
catalysis
A reaction in which the catalyst and reactants are in the same
physical state, which is most frequently the aqueous or gaseous
state.
Homogeneous
equilibrium
An equilibrium in which all the species making up the reactants and
products are in the same physical state.
Homologous series
A series of organic compounds with the same functional group but
with each successive member differing by CH2.
Homolytic fission
The breaking of a covalent bond with one of the bonded electrons
going to each atom, forming two radicals.
Hydrated
A crystalline compound containing water molecules.
Hydrocarbon
A compound of hydrogen and carbon only.
Hydrogen bond
A strong dipole–dipole attraction between an electron-deficient
hydrogen atom (O–Hδ+, N–Hδ+ or F–Hδ+) on one molecule and a
lone pair of electrons on a highly electronegative atom (HδO:δ–,
HδN:δ– HδF:δ–) on a different molecule.
Hydrolysis
A reaction with water that breaks a chemical compound into two
compounds; the H and OH in a water molecule becomes
incorporated into the two compounds.
Initial rate of
reaction
The change in concentration of a reactant or product per unit time
at the start of the reaction: t = 0.
Initiation
The first step in a radical substitution in which the free radicals are
generated by ultraviolet radiation.
Intermediate
A species formed in one step and used up in a subsequent step
and so never seen as either a reactant or a product.
Intermolecular
force
An attractive force between neighbouring molecules. Intermolecular
forces can be van der Waals’ forces, dipole–dipole forces or
hydrogen bonding.
Ion
A positively or negatively charged atom or a (covalently bonded)
group of atoms (a molecular ion).
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Ionic bonding
The electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions.
Ionic product of
water, Kw
Kw = [H+(aq)] [OH–(aq)]
At 25 °C, Kw = 1.00 × 10–14 mol2 dm–6.
(First) ionisation
energy
The energy required to remove one electron from each atom in one
mole of gaseous atoms to form one mole of gaseous 1+ ions.
(Second) ionisation
energy
The energy required to remove one electron from each ion in one
mole of gaseous 1+ ions to form one mole of gaseous 2+ ions.
Isoelectric point
The point at which an amino acid has no overall charge.
Isotopes
Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons and
different masses.
Lattice enthalpy
The enthalpy change that accompanies the formation of one mole
of an ionic compound from its gaseous ions under standard
conditions.
Le Chatelier’s
Principle
When a system in dynamic equilibrium is subjected to a change,
the system readjusts itself to minimise the effect of the change and
to restore equilibrium.
Ligand
A molecule or ion that can donate a pair of electrons to a transition
metal ion.
Ligand substitution
A reaction in which one ligand in a complex ion is replaced by
another ligand.
Limiting reagent
The substance in a chemical reaction that runs out first.
Lone pair
An outer-shell pair of electrons that is not involved in chemical
bonding.
Low-density
lipoprotein (LDL)
A type of lipoprotein responsible for carrying cholesterol and
triglycerides from the liver to the tissues.
Mass (nucleon)
number
The number of particles, protons and neutrons, in the nucleus.
Mechanism
A sequence of steps, showing the path taken by electrons in a
reaction.
Metallic bond
The electrostatic attraction between positive metal ions and
delocalised electrons.
Mobile phase
The phase that moves in chromatography.
Molar mass, M
The mass per mole of a substance. The units of molar mass are
g mol–1.
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Mole
The amount of any substance containing as many elementary
particles as there are carbon atoms in exactly 12 g of the carbon-12
isotope.
Molecular formula
The actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule.
Molecular ion, M+
The positive ion formed in mass spectrometry when a molecule
loses an electron.
Molecule
A small group of atoms held together by covalent bonds.
Monomer
A small molecule that combines with many other monomers to form
a polymer.
Neutralisation
A chemical reaction in which an acid and a base react together to
produce a salt and water.
Nomenclature
A system of naming compounds.
Nucleophile
An atom (or group of atoms) which is attracted to an electrondeficient centre or atom, where it donates a pair of electrons to form
a new covalent bond.
Optical isomers
Stereoisomers that are non-superimposable mirror images of each
other; also called ‘enantiomers’.
Order
The power to which the concentration of the reactant is raised in the
rate equation.
Overall order
The sum of the individual orders: m + n.
Oxidation
Loss of electrons or an increase in oxidation number.
Oxidation number
A measure of the number of electrons that an atom uses to bond
with atoms of another element. Oxidation numbers are derived from
a set of rules.
Oxidising agent
A reagent that oxidises (takes electrons from) another species.
Peptide
A compound containing amino acids linked by peptide bonds. Often
the number of amino acids is indicated by the prefix, di-, tri-, tetra-:
dipeptide = 2 amino acids
tripeptide = 3 amino acids
tetrapeptide = 4 amino acids.
Percentage yield
Period
A horizontal row of elements in the Periodic Table. Elements show
trends in properties across a period.
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Periodicity
A regular periodic variation of properties of elements with atomic
number and position in the Periodic Table.
Permanent dipole
A small charge difference across a bond resulting from a difference
in electronegativities of the bonded atoms.
pH
pH = –log[H+(aq)]
[H+(aq)] = 10–pH.
Pharmacological
activity
The beneficial or adverse effects of a drug on living matter.
Phase
A physically distinctive form of a substance, such as the solid, liquid
and gaseous states of ordinary matter.
pi-bond
The reactive part of a double bond formed above and below the
plane of the bonded atoms by sideways overlap of p-orbitals.
Polar covalent
bond
A bond with a permanent dipole.
Polar molecule
A molecule with an overall dipole, having taken into account any
dipoles across bonds.
Polymer
A long molecular chain built up from monomer units.
Precipitation
reaction
The formation of a solid from a solution during a chemical reaction.
Precipitates are often formed when two aqueous solutions are
mixed together.
Principal quantum
number, n
A number representing the relative overall energy of each orbital,
which increases with distance from the nucleus. The sets of orbitals
with the same n-value are referred to as electron shells or energy
levels.
Propagation
The two repeated steps in radical substitution which build up the
products in a chain reaction.
Radical
A species with an unpaired electron.
Rate constant, k
The constant that links the rate of reaction with the concentrations
of the reactants raised to the powers of their orders in the rate
equation.
Rate equation
For a reaction: A + B → C, the rate equation is given by:
rate = k[A]m[B]n.
m is the order of reaction with respect to A.
n is the order of reaction with respect to B.
m + n = overall order.
Rate of reaction
The change in concentration of a reactant or a product in a given
time.
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Rate-determining
step
The slowest step in the reaction mechanism of a multi-step
reaction.
Reaction
mechanism
A series of steps that, together, make up the overall reaction.
Redox reaction
A reaction in which both reduction and oxidation take place.
Reducing agent
A reagent that reduces (adds electrons to) another species.
Reduction
Gain of electrons or a decrease in oxidation number.
Reflux
The continuous boiling and condensing of a reaction mixture to
ensure that the reaction takes place without the contents of the
flask boiling dry.
Relative atomic
mass, Ar
The weighted mean mass of an atom of an element compared with
one-twelfth of the mass of an atom of carbon-12.
Relative formula
mass
The weighted mean mass of the formula unit of a compound
compared with one-twelfth of the mass of an atom of carbon-12.
Relative isotopic
mass
The mass of an atom of an isotope compared with one-twelfth of
the mass of an atom of carbon-12.
Relative molecular
mass, Mr
The weighted mean mass of a molecule of a compound compared
with one-twelfth of the mass of an atom of carbon-12.
Repeat unit
A specific arrangement of atoms that occurs in the structure over
and over again. Repeat units are included in brackets, outside
which is the symbol n.
Retention time
The time for a component to pass from the column inlet to the
detector.
Rf value
Salt
A chemical compound formed from an acid, when an H+ ion from
the acid has been replaced by a metal ion or another positive ion,
such as the ammonium ion, NH4+.
Saturated
hydrocarbon
A hydrocarbon with single bonds only.
Shell
A group of atomic orbitals with the same principal quantum number,
n. Also known as a main energy level.
Simple molecular
lattice
A three-dimensional structure of molecules, bonded together by
weak intermolecular forces.
Skeletal formula
A simplified organic formula, with hydrogen atoms removed from
alkyl chains, leaving just a carbon skeleton and associated
functional groups.
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Specific heat
capacity, c
The energy required to raise the temperature of 1 g of a substance
by 1 °C.
Spectator ions
Ions that are present but play no part in a chemical reaction
Spin–spin coupling
The interaction between spin states of non-equivalent nuclei that
results in a group of peaks in an NMR spectrum.
Stability constant,
Kstab
The equilibrium constant for an equilibrium existing between a
transition metal ion surrounded by water ligands and the complex
formed when the same ion has undergone a ligand substitution
reaction.
Standard
conditions
A pressure of 100 kPa (1 atmosphere), a stated temperature, usually
298 K (25 °C) and a concentration of 1 mol dm–3 (for reactions with
aqueous solutions).
Standard electrode
potential,
The e.m.f. of a half-cell compared with a standard hydrogen halfcell, measured at 298 K with solution concentrations of 1 mol dm–3
and a gas pressure of 101 kPa (1 atmosphere).
Stationary phase
The phase that does not move in chromatography.
Stem
The longest carbon chain present in an organic molecule.
Stereoisomers
Compounds with the same structural formula but with a different
arrangement of the atoms in space.
Stoichiometry
The molar relationship between the relative quantities of
substances taking part in a reaction.
Stratosphere
The second layer of the Earth’s atmosphere, containing the ‘ozone
layer’, between about 10 km and 50 km above the Earth’s surface.
Strong acid
An acid that completely dissociates in solution.
Structural formula
A formula showing the minimal detail for the arrangement of atoms
in a molecule.
Structural isomers
Molecules with the same molecular formula but with different
structural arrangements of atoms.
Sub-shell
A group of the same type of atomic orbitals (s, p, d or f) within a
shell.
Substitution
reaction
A reaction in which an atom or group of atoms is replaced with a
different atom or group of atoms.
Suffix
The part of the name added after the stem.
Termination
The step at the end of a radical substitution when two radicals
combine to form a molecule.
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Thermal
decomposition
The breaking up of a chemical substance with heat into at least two
chemical substances.
Transition element
A d-block element which forms an ion with an incomplete d subshell.
Troposphere
The lowest layer of the Earth’s atmosphere, extending from the
Earth’s surface up to about 7 km (above the poles) to about 20 km
(above the tropics).
Unsaturated
hydrocarbon
A hydrocarbon containing multiple carbon-to-carbon bonds.
Valence shell
The outermost shell of an atom, which contains the electrons most
likely to react and bond to other atoms.
van der Waals’
force
An attractive force between instantaneous dipoles and induced
dipoles in neighbouring molecules.
Volatility
The ease with which a liquid turns into a gas. Volatility increases as
boiling point decreases.
Water of
crystallisation
Water molecules that form an essential part of the crystalline
structure of a compound.
Weak acid
An acid that partially dissociates in solution.
Zwitterion
A dipolar ionic form of an amino acid that is formed by the donation
of a hydrogen ion from the carboxyl group to the amino group. As
both charges are present there is no overall charge.
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