Download CHAPTER 6: LEARNING

PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Chapter 6
LEARNING
Section 1: Classical Conditioning
Section 2: Operant Conditioning
Section 3: Cognitive Factors in Learning
Section 4: The PQ4R Method: Learning to Learn
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Chapter 6
Section 1: Classical Conditioning
PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
 Learning is achieved through experience and
anything we are born knowing how to do is not a
result of learning.
 Take Grades
 People are not born with instinctive attitudes
regarding the letters used for grades, such as A and F.
So why do most students like As and try to avoid Fs?
 When they are associated with college, jobs, and
participation in team sports, grades have meaning.
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Chapter 6
Section 1: Classical Conditioning
PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Question: What are the principles of classical conditioning?
PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
 A stimulus is something that produces a reaction, or a
response, from a person or a animal.
 Classical conditioning is a simple form of learning in which
one stimulus (thought of food) comes to call forth the response
(your mouth watering) usually called forth by another stimulus
(the actual food)
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Chapter 6
Section 1: Classical Conditioning
PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
 Russian physiologist—Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
 Discovered that dogs learn to associate one thing with
another when food is involved.
 He studied salivation in dogs.
 He knew dogs would salivate if meat was placed on
their tongues because saliva aids in the eating and
digestion of the meat.
 Meat = stimulus; saliva = response
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Chapter 6
PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Ivan Pavlov (continued)
 Pavlov discovered dogs did not always wait
until they had received meat to start salivating.
 The clinking of food trays started the process.
Also when Pavlov’s assistants entered the
laboratory they would salivate.
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Chapter 6
Section 1: Classical Conditioning
PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Ivan Pavlov (continued)
 If the dogs could learn to salivate in response to the clinking of
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food trays because this clinking was associated with the
bringing of meat, could they learn to salivate in response to
any stimulus that signaled meat?
His prediction—Yes, it could.
The stimulus he chose was the ringing of a bell.
Half a second after the bell rang, meat powder was placed on
the dogs tongue. As expected the dogs salivated in response to
the meat powder.
Pavlov repeated this process several times.
Then he changed the procedure
He rang the bell but did not give them the meat powder. They
still salivated.
They had learned to salivate in response to the bell alone.
HOLT, RINEHART
AND
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Chapter 6
Section 1: Classical Conditioning
PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Question: What are the principles of classical conditioning?
IMPORTANT TERMS
Terms that are important in understanding
classical conditioning:
 Unconditioned stimulus (US) – a stimulus that
causes a response that is automatic, not learned
 Unconditioned response (UR) – the response
that is automatic, not learned
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Chapter 6
Section 1: Classical Conditioning
PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Question: What are the principles of classical conditioning?
IMPORTANT TERMS (continued)
 Conditioned Response (CR) – a learned
response to a stimulus that was previously
neutral or meaningless
 Conditioned Stimulus (CS) – a previously
neutral stimulus that, because of pairing with
an unconditioned stimulus, now causes a
conditioned response
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Chapter 6
PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
 The dog’s salivation in response to the bell
was a conditioned response. (CR)
 Before the bell was associated with meat, the
bell would have not caused the dog to salivate.
 The bell became a conditioned stimulus. (CS)
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Chapter 6
Section 1: Classical Conditioning
PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Taste Aversions
 Taste Aversions—a learned avoidance of a
particular food.
 Have you every eaten a food that made you ill
perhaps because it was spoiled?
 Did you stay away from that food for a long
time? You developed a taste aversion
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Chapter 6
Section 1: Classical Conditioning
PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Example
 Dan ate a half gallon of ice cream at one time.
 As a result, even the thought of ice cream
served as a conditioned stimulus (CS) that
made him feel nauseated (CR).
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Chapter 6
Section 1: Classical Conditioning
PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Extinction
 Extinction occurs when the conditioned
stimulus (CS) no longer causes the conditioned
response (CR) to occur.
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Chapter 6
Section 1: Classical Conditioning
Spontaneous Recovery
PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
 Spontaneous Recovery—organisms sometimes
display responses that were extinguished
earlier
 Pavlov’s dogs responded to the bell even after
the previous behavior had been extinguished.
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Chapter 6
Section 1: Classical Conditioning
PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Generalization and Discrimination
 Generalization is the act of responding in the same
ways to stimuli that seem to be similar, even if the
stimuli are not identical.
 A child may be bit by her neighbor’s dog therefore
the child stays away from all dogs.
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Chapter 6
Section 1: Classical Conditioning
PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Generalization and Discrimination
 Discrimination is the act of responding
differently to stimuli that are not similar to
each other.
 The child continues to play with her stuffed
animals, even the ones that look like dogs.
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©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007
Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)
PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
 Conditioned Emotional
John B. Watson
Response (CER):
Watson demonstrated
how emotions can be
classically conditioned to
a previously neutral
stimulus (NS).
HOLT, RINEHART
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©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007
Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)
PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
John B Watson and Rosalie Rayner Created a
Fear of Rats (a CER) in Little Albert
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Chapter 6
Section 1: Classical Conditioning
PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Applications of Classical Conditioning
 Classical conditioning can help people
overcome their fears of various objects and
situations.
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Chapter 6
Section 1: Classical Conditioning
PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Flooding and Systematic Desensitization
 Two methods for reducing such fears are based
on the principle of extinction.
 Flooding—a person is exposed to the harmless
stimulus until fear responses to the stimulus
are extinguished. (effective – but unpleasant)
 Systematic desensitization—people are taught
relaxation techniques.
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Chapter 6
Section 2: Operant Conditioning
PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Operant conditioning
 Operant conditioning—people and animals learn to
do certain things and not do others because of the
results of what they do.
 They learn from the consequences of their actions.
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Chapter 6
Section 2: Operant Conditioning
PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Reinforcement
 Reinforcement—is the process by which a stimulus
increases the chances that the preceding behavior will
occur again.
 In operant conditioning, it matters little why the
person or animal makes the first response that is
reinforced.
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Chapter 6
Section 2: Operant Conditioning
PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Types of Reinforcers
 The stimulus that encourages a behavior to
occur again is called a reinforcer
 Reinforcers can be primary or secondary
 Reinforcers can also be positive and negative
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Chapter 6
Section 2: Operant Conditioning
PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Primary and Secondary Reinforcers
 Primary reinforcer—function due to the biological makeup of
the organism
 Food, water, and adequate warmth are all primary reinforcer.
 People and animals do not need to be taught to value food,
water and warmth.
 The value of secondary reinforcer must be learned.
 Money, attention, and social approval are all usually secondary
reinforcer.
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Chapter 6
Section 2: Operant Conditioning
PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Positive and Negative Reinforcers
 Positive reinforcers-increase the frequency of the
behavior they follow when they are applied.
 Food, fun activities and social approval are usually
examples.
 Positive reinforcement—a behavior is reinforced
because a person receives something he or she wants
following the behavior.
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Chapter 6
Section 2: Operant Conditioning
PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Positive and Negative Reinforcers
 Negative reinforces—a behavior is reinforced
because something unwanted stops happening or is
removed following the behavior.
 Negative reinforcers increase the frequency of the
behavior that follows when they are removed.
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