Download Learning and Human Nature

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Presentations for
Seventh Edition
Philip G. Zimbardo
Robert L. Johnson
Vivian McCann
Prepared by
Beth M. Schwartz
Randolph College
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Chapter 4
Learning and Human Nature
This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display,
including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, of any images; any
rental, lease, or lending of the program. ISBN: 0-205-42428-7
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Learning vs. Instincts
Learning
• A process through which experience
produces lasting change in behavior or
mental processes
Habituation
• Learning not to respond to repeated
presentation of a stimulus
Instincts
• Motivated behaviors that have a strong
innate basis
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Learning
Mere Exposure Effect
• Learned preference for stimuli to which we
have been previously exposed
Behavioral Learning
• Forms of learning that can be described in
terms of stimuli and responses (e.g.,
classical and operant conditioning)
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What Sort of Learning Does
Classical Conditioning Explain?
Classical conditioning is a
basic form of learning in which
a stimulus that produces an
innate reflex becomes
associated with a previously
neutral stimulus, which then
acquires the power to elicit
essentially the same response.
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Classical Conditioning
Neutral Stimulus
• Any stimulus that produces no conditioned
response prior to learning
Acquisition
• Initial learning stage in classical conditioning
• Conditioned response (CR) becomes
elicited by the conditioned stimulus (CS)
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Basic Features of
Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned
Stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned
Response (UCR)
Conditioned
Stimulus (CS)
Conditioned
Response (CR)
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The Essentials of Classical
Conditioning
Unconditioned
Stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned
Response (UCR)
The stimulus that elicits
an unconditioned
response
Conditioned
Stimulus (CS)
Conditioned
Response (CR)
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The Essentials of Classical
Conditioning
Unconditioned
Stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned
Response (UCR)
Conditioned
Stimulus (CS)
The response elicited
by an unconditioned
stimulus without prior
learning
Conditioned
Response (CR)
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The Essentials of Classical
Conditioning
Unconditioned
Stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned
Response (UCR)
Conditioned
Stimulus (CS)
A previously neutral
stimulus that comes to
elicit the conditioned
response
Conditioned
Response (CR)
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The Essentials of Classical
Conditioning
Unconditioned
Stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned
Response (UCR)
Conditioned
Stimulus (CS)
Conditioned
Response (CR)
A response elicited by a
previously neutral
stimulus that has
become associated with
the conditioned stimulus
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Figure 4.1 Basic Features of Classical Conditioning
Before conditioning, the food (UCS) naturally elicits salivation (UCR). A tone from a tuning fork is a neutral
stimulus (NS) and has no effect. During conditioning (the acquisition phase), the tone (NS) is paired with the
food (UCS), which continues to elicit the salivation response (UCR). Through its association with the food, the
previously neutral tone becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS), gradually producing a stronger and stronger
salivation response (CR).
Source: Zimbardo, P.G., & Gerrig, R. J. (1999). Psychology and Life, 15th ed. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Copyright © 1999 by Pearson Education. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
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Classical Conditioning
Extinction
• Weakening of a conditioned response in the
absence of an unconditioned stimulus
Spontaneous Recovery
• Unexpected reappearance of an
extinguished conditioned response after a
time delay
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Acquisition, Extinction, and
Spontaneous Recovery
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Classical Conditioning:
Generalization and Discrimination
Stimulus Generalization
• The extension of a learned response to
stimuli that are similar to the CS
Stimulus Discrimination
• Learning to respond to a particular
stimulus but not to similar stimuli
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Applications of Classical Conditioning
Conditioned Fear (Little Albert)
Counterconditioning
Conditioned Food Aversions
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Biological Predispositions:
A Challenge to Pavlov
Conditioned aversions involve both nature and
nurture.
Garcia & Koelling (1966):
• Selective CS-UCS connection
• Innate disposition to associations
Why are some stimuli-consequence
combinations readily learned while other
combinations are highly resistant to learning?
What any organism can or cannot learn in a
given setting is due in part to its genetic
preparedness.
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How Do We Learn
New Behaviors by
Operant Conditioning?
In operant conditioning, the
consequences of behavior—
such as rewards and
punishments—influence the
probability that the behavior
will occur again.
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How Do We Learn
New Behaviors by
Operant Conditioning?
Operant Conditioning
• Learning in which the probability of a
response or changed by its
consequences—that is, by the stimuli
that follow the response
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How Do We Learn
New Behaviors by
Operant Conditioning?
Law of Effect
• Responses that produced desirable results
would be learned or “stamped” into the
organism.
Reinforcer
• Condition (involving either the presentation
or removal of a stimulus) that occurs after a
response and strengthens that response
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Skinner’s Radical Behaviorism
B.F. Skinner believed that the most
powerful influences on behavior are its
consequences.
“The power of reinforcement”
Operant Chamber
• Barlike apparatus that delivers reinforcers
and punishers contingent on an animal’s
behavior
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The Power of Reinforcement
Positive Reinforcers
• Stimulus presented after a response;
increases the probability of that response
happening again
• Positive = add or apply
Negative Reinforcers
• Removal of an unpleasant stimulus;
increases the probability of that response
happening again
• Negative = subtract or remove
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Contingencies of Reinforcement:
Varying the timing and frequency of
reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement
• Reinforcement schedule in which all correct
responses are reinforced
Intermittent (Partial) Reinforcement
• Reinforcement schedule in which some, but
not all, correct responses are reinforced
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Schedules of Reinforcement
Ratio Schedules
• Reinforcement depends on the number of
correct responses.
Interval Schedules
• Reinforcement depends on the time interval
elapsed since the last reinforcement.
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Variable Ratio (VR)
Fixed Interval (FI)
Variable Interval (VI)
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Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Variable Ratio
(VR)
Fixed Interval
(FI)
Variable Interval
(VI)
Reinforcement is
contingent on a certain,
unchanging number of
responses.
e.g., factory workers
getting paid after every
ten cases of product are
completed
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Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Variable Ratio
(VR)
Fixed Interval
(FI)
Variable Interval
(VI)
Reinforcement
presented after a
certain number of
responses, but that
number varies from trial
to trial
e.g., slot machine payoffs
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Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Variable Ratio
(VR)
Fixed Interval
(FI)
Variable Interval
(VI)
reinforcement
presented after a
certain fixed amount of
time, regardless of
number of responses
e.g., weekly or monthly
paychecks
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Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Variable Ratio
(VR)
Fixed Interval
(FI)
Variable Interval
(VI)
Reinforcement
presented after a
certain amount of time,
but that amount varies
from trial to trial
e.g., random visits from
the boss, who delivers
praise
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Patterns of Responding
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The Power of Reinforcement
Primary Reinforcers
• Reinforcers that fulfill basic biological needs
or desires, such as food and sex, that have
an innate value to an organism
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The Power of Reinforcement
Secondary (Conditioned) Reinforcers
• Stimuli, such as money or tokens, that
acquire their reinforcing power by their
learned association with primary reinforcers
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Factors that Can Influence
the Effectiveness of Reinforcement
Instinctive Drift
• Innate response tendencies interfere with
learned behaviors; innate tendencies can
override behaviors learned through
reinforcement
• E.g., attempting to train your cat to not scratch
the furniture
Premack Principle• A preferred activity can reinforce a less
preferred activity
• E.g., children sitting quietly in class in order to
go out for recess
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Punishment
Punishment
• An aversive consequence that diminishes
the strength of the response it follows
How does this differ from negative
reinforcement?
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Punishment
Positive Punishment
• Application (+) of an aversive stimulus
after a response
Negative Punishment
• Removal (-) of an attractive stimulus after a
response
Both attempt to decrease the likelihood
that a behavior will reoccur.
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Four Kinds of Consequences
Table 4.1 Four Kinds of Consequences
Three important points to keep in mind as you study this table:
1. “Positive” and “negative” mean that a stimulus (consequence) has been added (presented) or subtracted
(removed). These terms have nothing to do with “good” or “bad, pleasurable or painful.”
2. We can often predict what effect a particular consequence will have, but the only way to know for sure
whether it will be a reinforcer or a punisher is to observe its effect on behavior. For example, although we might
guess that a spanking would punish a child, the attention might actually serve as a reinforcer to strengthen the
unwanted behavior.
3. From a cognitive viewpoint, we can see that reinforcement consists of the presentation of a pleasant stimulus
or the removal of an unpleasant one. Similarly, punishment entails the presentation of an unpleasant stimulus or
the removal of a pleasant one.
STIMULUS
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When Does Punishment Work?
• When presented without delay
• When consistent
• When limited in duration and intensity
• When the consequence is logical
• When limited to the specific situation at
hand
• When no mixed messages are sent
• When negative punishment is used
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Uses and Abuses of Punishment
Problems associated with punishment:
• Power of use usually disappears when
threat of punishment is removed
• Rewards can override/overpower the
punishment
• Often triggers escape or aggression
• Teaches legitimate use of aggression to
influence others
• May inhibit learning new and better
responses
• Is often applied unequally
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A Checklist for Modifying Operant Behavior
Consider combining the following:
• Positive reinforcement
• encourage desirable behaviors
• Punishment
• use logical consequences, swiftly, without
undue harm
• Negative reinforcement
• Extinction
• control all possible reinforcers
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Classical and Operant
Conditioning Compared
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Classical and Operant Conditioning
Can Work Together
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How Does
Cognitive Psychology
Explain Learning?
According to cognitive
psychology, some forms of
learning must be explained
as changes in mental
processes rather than as
changes in behavior alone.
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How Does
Cognitive Psychology
Explain Learning?
Insight Learning
• Cognitive learning, in which problem solving
occurs by means of a sudden
reorganization of perception
Cognitive Maps: Tolman
• A mental representation of a physical or
mental “space”
• Support that learning was mental, not purely
behavioral
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How Does
Cognitive Psychology
Explain Learning?
Latent Learning
• When learning occurs without reinforcement
and without any hint that learning took place
• Further support for cognitive explanation of
learning vs. the behavioral explanation
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Observational Learning:
Bandura’s Challenge to Behaviorism
Observational Learning
•
Form of cognitive learning
•
New responses are acquired after
watching others’ behavior and the
consequences of their behavior.
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Observational Learning Applied to
Social Problems around the Globe
• In Mexico, popular soap Ven Conmigo
improved adult literacy.
• Populations Communications International
is a nonprofit that created television
dramas around the world promoting:
•
•
•
•
Women’s rights
Safe sex
Preventing HIV
Unwanted pregnancies
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Brain Mechanisms and Learning
Long-Term Potentiation
• Biological process involving physical
changes that strengthen the synapses in
groups of nerve cells
• Believed to be the neural basis of learning
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Brain Mechanisms and Learning
Extinction
• Forgetting unimportant associations
• Neurotransmitters block memories.
• glutamate; norephinephrine
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Brain Mechanisms and Learning
Brain Circuitry for Different Types of Learning
• Simpler circuits
• classical conditioning and operant learning
• Complex learning
• concept formation, insight learning, and
observational learning
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Brain Mechanisms and Learning
Observational Learning and Mirror Neurons
• Neurons that help us imitate others’
behaviors
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Behavioral Learning and
Cognitive Learning Compared
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