Download Learning and Memory

MKT201 - Weeks 3 & 4
Learning and Memory
(Ch. 3)
1
The Learning Process
• Learning:
– A relatively permanent change in behavior caused by
experience
• Learning is an Ongoing Process and we can
learn:
– Vicariously by observing events that affect others
(don’t need direct experience)
– By incidental learning which is unintentional
(can hum product jingles, without using the product)
* There are several theories to explain the learning process,
such as the Behavioral Theory and the Cognitive Theory
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Learning is a Process
• Our tastes are formed
as a result of a
learning process,
sometimes with
painful results.
3
(1) BEHAVIORAL LEARNING THEORIES
(stress on stimulus-response connection)
Two Major Approaches:
(a) Classical Conditioning
»Ivan Pavlov (Russian physiologist)
(b) Instrumental Conditioning
(Operant Conditioning)
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Behavioral Learning Theories
• Assume that learning takes place as the
result of responses to external events.
• View is represented by two major
approaches to learning:
– 1) Classical Conditioning
– 2) Instrumental Conditioning
• People’s experiences shaped by feedback
they receive as they go through life
• Actions result in rewards and punishments,
which influences future responses to similar
situations.
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Behavioral Learning Theories
Behavioral Learning Theories Assume that Learning
Takes Place as the Result of Responses to External
Events (NOT focus on internal thought processes).
Stimulus
Consumer
Response
Consumer’s Black Box
6
Behavioral Learning Theory:
(a) Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning Occurs When a Stimulus That
Elicits a Response is Paired With Another Stimulus That
Initially Does Not Elicit a Response on It’s Own.
Unconditioned
Stimulus
(UCS)
Conditioned
Stimulus
(CS)
Conditioned
Response
(CR)
meat powder
bell
salivate
Ivan Pavlov’s experiment on dogs
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Behavioral Learning Theory:
(a) Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning Occurs When a Stimulus That Elicits a Response
is Paired With Another Stimulus That Initially Does Not Elicit a Response
on It’s Own.
Repeated Pairing
Unconditioned
Stimulus
(UCS)
Conditioned
Stimulus
(CS)
Conditioned
Response
(CR)
meat powder
bell
salivate
Visual cues,
Olfactory cues
A brand name / product;
Sexual arousal,
huger, thirst, other
basic drives
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Classical Conditioning
• Ivan Pavlov’s Dogs
– Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) – Naturally capable
of causing a response.
– Conditioned stimulus (CS) – Does not initially
cause a response
– Conditioned response (CR) – Response generated
by repeated paired exposures to UCS and CS.
Eventually, through learned association and
repetition, the CS will cause the CR.
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Factors That Affect the Classical
Conditioning Process
(1) Repetition (CS paired with UCS, repeated
exposure increase the strength)
(2) Stimulus Generalization (react to similar
conditioned stimuli CS with similar responses)
(3) Stimulus Discrimination (similar CS not
followed by a UCS, so original manufacturers
urge consumers not to buy “cheap imitations”)
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(1) Repetition of
exposure
–
–
Type of medium used (and
frequency/interval) affect
the effectiveness
Extinction (as CS is only
occasionally paried with the
UCS -> conditioning will
not occur))
•
–
Izod Lacoste crocodile on
baby clothes
Beware of…
•
•
Advertising wearout
Frequent product
encounters
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Discussion Question
• In the 1980’s, the Lacoste
crocodile was an exclusive
logo symbolizing casual
elegance. When it was
repeated on baby clothes
and other items, it lost its
cache and began to be
replaced by contenders
such as the Ralph Lauren
Polo Player.
• Can you thing of other logos
that have lost their prestige
due to repetition?
12
Classical Conditioning in Advertising
• This American Airlines
ad points to classical
conditioning as an
explanation for why
their AAdvantage
Marketing Programs
(travel awards
programs) will work.
• Can you identify the
UCS, CS, and the CR
in this example?
13
(2) Stimulus Generalization
– Halo effect (react similarly to similar stimulus)
• “Piggybacking” strategy (producing me-too
products)
• Masked branding (Levi’s markets its Red Tab)
– Family branding, product line extensions,
licensing, look-alike packaging
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Masked Branding
Levi’s markets its Red Tab
targeting to younger customers
(who don’t like “old” brand)
Plank Road
Brewery:
Icehouse beer
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(3) Stimulus Discrimination
– Brand positioning
• Unique attributes of brand
– Anti-Counterfeiting Coalition combats
“knockoffs” (unauthorized copy)
CONSUMERS’
DISCRIMINATION FOR
PROCTER & GAMBLE’S
PACKAGING/LABELING
16
Marketing Applications of
Behavior Learning Principles
• Brand Equity:
– A brand has strong positive associations in a
consumer’s memory and commands loyalty.
• Applications of Repetition (avoid advertising
wearout)
• Applications of Conditioned Product
Associations :
– Semantic associations (meaning of words/language)
– Phonemes (smallest phonetic unit in a language that
is capable of conveying a distinction in meaning)
(pleasant music, humor, … with the product)
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Loyalty to Brands
• Rewarding
consumers with
frequent flyer miles is
an effective way to
reinforce them and
build brand loyalty.
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Marketing Applications of
Behavior Learning Principles (cont’d)
• Applications of Stimulus Generalization:
–
–
–
–
Family branding
Product line extensions
Licensing
Look-alike packaging
• Applications of Stimulus Discrimination:
– Consumers learn to differentiate a brand from its
competitors
– Unique attributes of the brand
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Beware of Knockoffs (imitation)
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Behavioral Learning Theory:
(b) Instrumental Conditioning
Instrumental Conditioning (Operant Conditioning)
Occurs as the Individual Learns to Perform Behaviors
That Produce Positive Outcomes and to Avoid Those
That Yield Negative Outcomes.
It Occurs in One of the Following Three Ways:
Positive Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
Punishment
21
Four Types of Reinforcement
Try to
use
perfume
as
examples
Figure 3.2
22
Instrumental Conditioning
•
Reinforcement Schedules
(trying to reward consumers to condition desired
behaviour)
 Fixed-interval reinforcement (seasonal sales – fixed
time period)
 Variable-interval reinforcement (not knowing the exact
time of reinforcement; secret shoppers for testing
service quality)
 Fixed – Ratio reinforcement (grocery-shopping receipt
programs, collection of 10 trading stamps – fixed no. of
responses)
 Variable – Ratio reinforcement (slot machine)
23
Applications of Instrumental
Conditioning Principles
• Reinforcement of Consumption:
– Simple “Thank you”
– Rebates
– Follow-up phone calls
• Frequency Marketing (a popular
technique):
– Reinforces regular purchases by giving them rewards
with values that increase along with the amount
purchased
• Frequent flyer miles
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(2) COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY
• Stress on the importance of internal mental process
• View people as problem solvers with the use of
information
• Is learning cognitive/conscious or not?
Behavioural learning theory - automatic nature of
conditioning: no, not conscious
Cognitive learning theory: yes, react to a stimulus
consciously
– Trigger feature
• A stimulus that cues an individual toward a particular
pattern and activates a reaction
e.g. seductive woman (trigger feature) in an ad
for a car -> better rating
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Cognitive Learning Theory:
Observational Learning
Observational Learning Occurs When People Watch the
Actions of Others and Note the Reinforcements They
Receive From Others.
Imitating the Behavior of Others is Called Modeling:
Consumer’s Attention Must Be Drawn to a Desirable Model
Consumer Must Remember What is Said and Done by Model
Consumer Must Convert This Information Into Actions
Consumer Must be Motivated to Perform These Actions
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Components of Observational Learning
Figure 3.3
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Applications of Cognitive
Learning Principles
• Consumers learn vicariously by seeing
others receive reinforcement for their
behaviors.
• Marketers can reinforce or punish
consumers indirectly by showing what
happens to desirable models who do or do
not use their products.
• Consumers’ evaluations of models are not
limited to stimulus-response connections.
– Attractiveness can be based on several components (e.g.
physical attractiveness, expertise, similarity to the
evaluator)
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The Role of Memory in Learning
• Memory
– A process of acquiring and storing information
such that it will be available when needed.
• Stages of Memory
– Encoding stage
• Information entered in a recognizable way
– Storage stage
• Knowledge integrated into what is already there and
warehoused
– Retrieval stage
• The person accesses the desired information
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The Memory Process
Figure 3.4
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Memory and Advertising
This Brazilian ad illustrates that external memory aids like
Post-Its can help us to remember many of the details of
modern life.
31
Encoding Information
for Later Retrieval
• Types of meaning:
– Sensory meaning (e.g. color or shape)
– Sense of familiarity (e.g. seeing a food that we have tasted)
– Semantic meaning: Symbolic associations (e.g. rich people drink
champagne)
(Semantics – also refers to the aspects of meaning that are expressed in a
language, code, or other form of representation.)
(Semiotics - the study of signs and symbols, both individually and
grouped in sign systems.)
• Personal relevance:
– Episodic memories: Relate to events that are personally relevant
– Flashbulb memories: Especially vivid associations
– Narrative: An effective way of persuading people to construct a mental
representation of the information that they are viewing
32
Memory Systems
1. Sensory Memory:
–
Very temporary storage of information we receive from
our senses
2. Short-Term Memory (STM):
–
–
Limited period of time & limited capacity
Working memory (i.e., holds memory we are currently
processing)
3. Long-Term Memory (LTM):
–
–
Can retain information for a long period of time
Elaboration rehearsal is required: Process involves
thinking about a stimulus and relating it to information
already in memory
33
Storing Information in Memory
Activation Models of Memory
Short-Term and Long-Term Memory are
Interdependent (and associated together)
Associative Networks
Incoming Information is Organized by
Relationships and Stored in Knowledge Structures
Spreading Activation
Allows Consumers to Shift Back and Forth
Between Levels of Meaning such as Brands
Levels of Knowledge
Knowledge is Coded to Produce Meaning
Concepts, then Propositions/Beliefs, then Schemas
34
Storing Information in Memory
• Multiple Store Models of Memory:
– Traditional perspective which assumes that STM & LTM
are separate systems (now, we think they are mutually
dependent).
• Activation Models of Memory:
– Argues that different levels of processing occur depending
on the nature of the processing task.
– The more effort it takes to process information, the more
likely that information will be placed in LTM.
– Propose the existence of associative network
35
Storing Information in Memory (cont’d)
• Associative Networks:
– Contains many bits of related information organized
according to some set of relationships
– Knowledge structures: Complex “spider webs” filled with
pieces of data
– Hierarchical processing model: Message is processed in a
bottom-up fashion (i.e., starts at a basic level and is subject
to increasingly complex processing which requires
increased cognitive capacity)
– Node: A concept related to a category
– An associative network is developed as links form between
nodes.
36
Figure 3-6: An Associative Network
for Perfumes
Links formed
between
nodes
37
Storing Information in Memory (cont’d)
• Spreading Activation:
– A process which allows consumers to shift back and forth
between levels of meaning (e.g., brand-specific, product
category, ad-specific).
• Levels of Knowledge:
– Knowledge is coded at different levels of abstraction and
complexity.
– Proposition (a.k.a. belief): A larger unit of meaning (i.e.,
formed by combinations of nodes)
– Schema: A cognitive framework (comprised of
propositions) developed through experience
• Script: A type of schema consisting of a sequence of events
expected by an individual
38
Retrieving Information for
Purchase Decisions
• Factors Influencing Retrieval:
– Physiological Factors (e.g. age)
– Situational Factors:
• Pioneering brand: First brand to enter a market. Is
generally easier to retrieve from memory.
• Descriptive (or suggestive) brand names easier to
recall than names that do no provide cues to what
the product is.
– Viewing environment: Commercials shown first in a series
of ads are recalled better than those shown last.
– Postexperience advertising effects:
• When consumers confuse recently viewed ads with
their own experiences.
39
Retrieving Information for
Purchase Decisions (cont.)
• State-Dependent Retrieval:
– (a.k.a. mood congruence effect) A process by which
consumers are better able to access info if their mood is the
same at the time of their recall as when the info was
learned.
– A few marketing researchers use hypnosis to dredge up past
memories of experiences with products.
• Familiarity and Recall:
– Prior familiarity enhances recall.
• Salience and Recall:
– Salience: The prominence or level of activation of stimuli
in memory
– Von Restorff Effect: Any technique that increases the
novelty of a stimulus also improves recall.
40
Retrieving Information for
Purchase Decisions
Physiological
Factors Such
As: Age
Pioneering
Situational
&
Factors Such
descriptive As: Environment
brands
Viewing
Environmental
Factors
Factors
Influencing
Retrieval
Football/basketball better than
baseball in recall of ads
41
Retrieving Information for
Purchase Decisions
High familiarity – good recall
Mood congruence effect
Extreme familiarity – no good !
State-Dependent
Retrieval
Salience and Recall
•Von Restorff Effect (novelty, more
prominent, better recall)
Familiarity and Recall
Pictorial Vs. Verbal
Cues
Visual better than verbal
42
Pictorial versus Verbal Cues
• There is some evidence
for the superiority of
visual memory over
verbal memory.
• Pictorial ads may
enhance recall, but do not
necessarily improve
comprehension.
• How many of these Ad
icons can you remember
from the picture alone?
43
Factors Influencing Forgetting (s4)
• Decay:
– Structural changes in the brain produced by learning simply
go away.
• Retroactive Interference:
– Consumers forget stimulus-response associations when
new responses to the same or similar stimuli are learned.
• Proactive Interference:
– As new responses are learned, a stimulus loses its
effectiveness in retrieving the old response. (Prior learning
interferes with new learning)
• Part-list Cueing Effect:
– When only a portion of the items in a category are
presented to consumers, the omitted items are not as easily
recalled. (e.g., in comparative ad, only mentions weak
competitors, not strong competitors).
44
Products as Memory Markers
• Products and ads can serve as powerful
retrieval cues.
– Autobiographical memories: Consumer memories related
to their own past.
– Mnemonic (associated, related to) qualities: Aspects of a
consumer’s possessions that serve as a form of external
memory which prompts the retrieval of episodic memories.
• The Marketing Power of Nostalgia
– Spontaneous recovery: The ability of a stimulus to evoke a
response years after it is initially perceived.
• Memory and Aesthetic Preferences
– Ads and products that remind consumers of their past also
help to determine what they like now.
45
Products as Memory Markers
Marketing Power
of Nostalgia
> Nostalgia is an
emotion where the
past is viewed with
sadness and longing.
> Retro Marketing
attempts to bring back
old commercials to
appeal to the nostalgia
market.
Memory and Aesthetic
Preferences
> Our prior
experiences also
help to determine
what we like now.
(popular songs –
age 23.5; fashion
models – age 33;
movie stars – age
26-27)
46
Memories of the Past as Retrieval Cues
47
Nostalgia Appeal
Fossil’s product designs evoke memories of earlier classic
designs
48
Measuring Memory for Marketing Stimuli
Measuring the Impact (Impression) that
Advertising Makes on Consumers
(whether
having
seen the
ads before)
Recognition
Recall
(showing
an ad,
recall what
have seen)
Starch Test - Test to Measure Recognition & Recall
(advertising recall for magazine, score/index)
49
Problems With Memory Measures
Response Biases
Results Obtained May be Biased Due to the Measuring
Instrument or Respondent (YES man)
Memory Lapses
People are Prone to Unintentionally Forgetting Information
(Omitting, averaging, …)
Memory for Facts Vs. Feelings
Difficult to Take “Feelings” Out of Impressions
About Ads
(arouse emotion rather than convey benefits)
50
Discussion Question
• Ads with celebrities
like Britney Spears
tend to have very
high recall rates.
• Name some ads
with celebrities that
you can recall
easily. Why does
the celebrity
association with the
ad aid your recall?
51