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PSYCHOLOGY
Chapter 6 LEARNING
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FIGURE 6.1
Loggerhead sea turtle hatchlings are born knowing how to find the ocean and how to
swim. Unlike the sea turtle, humans must learn how to swim (and surf). (credit “turtle”:
modification of work by Becky Skiba, USFWS; credit “surfer”: modification of work by
Mike Baird)
CHAPTER PRETEST
•What are Learning Theories?
•What is Classical Conditioning?
•Please be able to define the terms in Classical Conditioning.
•What is Instrumental (or Operant) Conditioning?
•Please be able to define the terms in Operant Conditioning.
CHAPTER PRETEST
•How will you use Classical and Operant Conditioning in your own life?
•What is Observational Learning in Social Learning Theory?
•The Neural Basis for Learning
•Summary
LEARNING THEORY
Theories that address how and why an animal learns
something.
We will look at the this from the point of a Behaviorist.
These include Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning,
Social Learning Theory, and the GOMS model.
LEARNING THEORY
•Empiricist philosophers argued that learning involves the forming
of simple associations.
• More complex learning simply involves many associations,
layered upon each other.
• All learning depends on the same mechanisms and should be
governed by the same principles.
BEHAVIORISM
A Behaviorist: Someone who is concerned with explaining
behavior (or looking at how we learn) primarily through seeing
what is observable and measureable.
The emphasis is on changes seen in behavior that occur as a
result of a stimulus-response association made.
BEHAVIORISM
Behaviors can be learned or unlearned.
Behaviors are seen as learned habits.
Thoughts are considered behaviors.
TERMS
 Stimulus: Anything that is detectable through your senses.
These influence behavior, and can vary in intensity, and amount.
Response: The response directly after the stimulus.
QUIZ 1
What is a learning theory?
What is Behaviorism? What does a Behaviorist emphasize?
How does a Behaviorist classify thoughts?
FIGURE 6.3
Ivan Pavlov’s research on the digestive
system of dogs unexpectedly led to his
discovery of the learning process now
known as classical conditioning.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Let’s start with a very simple way we, and other animals, make
and keep stimulus-response connections.
We make many. These form our behaviors.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
•In classical conditioning, animals learn about the association
between one stimulus and another. This is very basic.
• Before conditioning:
• an unconditioned stimulus (US, such as food)
• elicits an unconditioned response (UR, such as salivation)
FIGURE 6.4
Before conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (food) produces an unconditioned response
(salivation), and a neutral stimulus (bell) does not produce a response. During conditioning,
the unconditioned stimulus (food) is presented repeatedly just after the presentation of the
neutral stimulus (bell). After conditioning, the neutral stimulus alone produces a conditioned
response (salivation), thus becoming a conditioned stimulus.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
•After conditioning:
• If the US follows a conditioned stimulus (CS, such as a buzzer)
many times,
• this CS on its own will soon
• evoke the conditioned response (CR; here again, salivation).
• https://youtu.be/qy_mIEnnlF4
• https://youtu.be/_NSeYRanbbU?list=PLGCFrUiQwdGXSO5oULXTeNLpjMoidcGf
QUIZ 2
Please explain classical conditioning.
Please explain the US and UR. When does the US become the
CS? When does the UR become the CR?
When do you add a neutral stimulus?
What is second order conditioning?
FIGURE 6.5
In higher-order conditioning, an
established conditioned stimulus is
paired with a new neutral stimulus (the
second-order stimulus), so that
eventually the new stimulus also elicits
the conditioned response, without the
initial conditioned stimulus being
presented.
EXTINCTION: THE GRADUAL
WEAKENING IN THE CR
•Second-order conditioning
• When a CS-US relationship is well established, the CS can be
preceded by a second, neutral stimulus.
•Trials in which the CS is presented without the US lead to
extinction,
• but spontaneous recovery shows that the CR is only masked
by extinction.
EXTINCTION
Gradual Decay: Conditioning likely needs continual stimulusresponse practice or connection. If not, it can decay over time or the
stimulus can lose the “spark” over time.
The stimulus can become predictable.
Desensitization where the effect of the stimulus is dulled by over
conditioning. This happens when the S-CR is presented several times.
The S-CR is gradual for slightly intense to very intense.
EXTINCTION
Inoculation: The animal is presented with weakened form of the CSCR relationship so the person or animal finds it very easy to not get
upset or caught up in the anxiety of the CS presentation.
The purpose of inoculation is to attempt to make it so when the
person is truly presented with the CS they remember how easy it was
to resist the urges to react.
FIGURE 6.7
This is the curve of acquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recovery. The rising curve shows the
conditioned response quickly getting stronger through the repeated pairing of the conditioned
stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus (acquisition). Then the curve decreases, which shows how
the conditioned response weakens when only the conditioned stimulus is presented (extinction).
After a break or pause from conditioning, the conditioned response reappears (spontaneous
recovery).
HABITUATION
•Habituation
• Decrease of behavior in response to stimuli after several
presentations of the stimuli.
• The stimuli becomes familiar through repeated exposure.
• Examples: tuning out a noise, decreasing a fear, being around
a familiar scent, what else?
• This can generalize to similar stimuli.
DISHABITUATION
 A previously predictable stimulus changes, causing the
organism to renew its attention to the stimulus. This is known
as a spontaneous recovery.
 To reach habituation the stimulus must be presented long
enough.
QUIZ 3
What is extinction?
What is habituation?
What is dishabituation?
What is stimulus generalization?
FIGURE 6.8
John B. Watson used the principles of
classical conditioning in the study of
human emotion.
FIGURE 6.9
Through stimulus generalization, Little Albert came to fear furry things, including Watson in a Santa
Claus mask.
OPERANT CONDITIONING
B.F. Skinner.
Deals with operants and respondents.
A method of learning that occurs through reinforcements and
punishments of behaviors (very simple explanation).
https://youtu.be/H6LEcM0E0io
https://youtu.be/JA96Fba-WHk
CONTINGENCY RELATIONSHIP
Respondents are behaviors that are not in conscious control.
Operants are those under conscious control.
Contingency is “if this happens, then this will”, i.e.the cause and
effect. This describes the relationships between the stimuli and
responses.
This relationship tells you learning has occurred.
OPERANTS
•Operants are voluntary responses, strengthened by reinforcement.
• But acquiring them may call for some initial shaping. Shaping is
gradually molding or training an animal perform a desired response
by reinforcing this animal when they respond how you want.
• successive approximations: a series of rewards that provide positive
reinforcement for behavior change.
SHAPING
Moving your respondent toward the behavior you want them to
exhibit or show.
Any movement toward that behavior is reinforced similar to Big Bang
video.
Successive approximations: the series of reinforcing toward shaping.
https://youtu.be/k2QMnNcDd5k?list=PLkD4keehfWSsfKKk4E1K1Rbx
u61ZTHfoAcquistion is the learning or development of a skill.
FIGURE 6.10
(a) B. F. Skinner developed operant conditioning for systematic study of how behaviors are
strengthened or weakened according to their consequences.
(b) In a Skinner box, a rat presses a lever in an operant conditioning chamber to receive a
food reward. (credit a: modification of work by “Silly rabbit”/Wikimedia Commons)
QUIZ 4
What is operant conditioning?
What are the differences between operant conditioning and
classical conditioning?
What are successive approximations?
What is shaping?
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
How you will reinforce to strengthen or weaken a desired behavior.
This is not the same as reward.
Continuous vs. Partial Reinforcement.
Define. Continuous is done after every introduction of the stimulus.
Partial is done after partially or sometimes (every 4th time, every 5
minutes).
Which is stronger in the long-term?
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
• Types of Reinforcement Schedules.
• schedule of reinforcement
• in ratio schedules, reinforcement after a number of responses; the
ratio used may be fixed or variable
• in interval schedules, reinforcers for the first response made after a
given interval (or time frame such as every 5 minutes) since the last
reinforcement; this interval can be fixed or variable
These schedules can be FIXED or VARIABLE.
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
In Action
https://youtu.be/JA96Fba-WHk
FIGURE 6.11
Sticker charts are a form of positive reinforcement and a tool for behavior modification.
Once this little girl earns a certain number of stickers for demonstrating a desired
behavior, she will be rewarded with a trip to the ice cream parlor. (credit: Abigail
Batchelder)
FIGURE 6.12
Time-out is a popular form of negative punishment used by caregivers. When a child misbehaves,
he or she is removed from a desirable activity in an effort to decrease the unwanted behavior. For
example, (a) a child might be playing on the playground with friends and push another child; (b) the
child who misbehaved would then be removed from the activity for a short period of time. (credit a:
modification of work by Simone Ramella; credit b: modification of work by “JefferyTurner”/Flickr)
FIGURE 6.13
The four reinforcement schedules yield different response patterns. The variable ratio schedule is unpredictable and
yields high and steady response rates, with little if any pause after reinforcement (e.g., gambler). A fixed ratio
schedule is predictable and produces a high response rate, with a short pause after reinforcement (e.g., eyeglass
saleswoman). The variable interval schedule is unpredictable and produces a moderate, steady response rate (e.g.,
restaurant manager). The fixed interval schedule yields a scallop-shaped response pattern, reflecting a significant
pause after reinforcement (e.g., surgery patient).
FIGURE 6.14
Some research suggests that pathological gamblers use gambling to compensate for
abnormally low levels of the hormone norepinephrine, which is associated with stress
and is secreted in moments of arousal and thrill. (credit: Ted Murphy)
QUIZ 5
What are schedules of reinforcement?
What is an interval schedule?
What is a ratio schedule?
What does fixed schedule mean?
What does variable schedule mean?
KNOW the chart!
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Albert Bandura.
Synopsis: People learn through observing other people’s behavior or
what is modelled.
Integration of behavioral learning theory and a cognitive learning
theory (different processes in learning can be explained by analyzing
mental processed first).
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
4 requirements for learning: observing, retaining, reproducing,
and motivation.
https://youtu.be/-_U-pSZwHy8?list=PLqr46jOSoOwYdAOJHUHS4bhuY6G08sub
FIGURE 6.15
Psychologist Edward Tolman found that rats use cognitive maps to navigate through a maze.
Have you ever worked your way through various levels on a video game? You learned when
to turn left or right, move up or down. In that case you were relying on a cognitive map, just
like the rats in a maze. (credit: modification of work by “FutUndBeidl”/Flickr)
FIGURE 6.16
This spider monkey learned to drink water from a plastic bottle by seeing the behavior
modeled by a human. (credit: U.S. Air Force, Senior Airman Kasey Close)
FIGURE 6.17
(a) Yoga students learn by observation as their yoga instructor demonstrates the correct
stance and movement for her students (live model).
(b) Models don’t have to be present for learning to occur: through symbolic modeling, this
child can learn a behavior by watching someone demonstrate it on television. (credit a:
modification of work by Tony Cecala; credit b: modification of work by Andrew Hyde)
FIGURE 6.18
Can video games make us violent? Psychological researchers study this topic. (credit:
“woodleywonderworks”/Flickr)
QUIZ 6
What is social learning theory?
What are the four requirements for learning in social learning
theory?
VARIETIES OF LEARNING
•Evidence suggests animals are biologically prepared to learn
certain relations more readily than others.
•Similar effects occur in instrumental conditioning.
• Some responses are more readily strengthened by some
reinforcers than others.
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