Download AP Psychology-Midterm Review

AP Psychology-Midterm Review
2015-2016
Units 1, 2, 5, 6, 7A, 8, 9, and 10
Please Note:
These concepts are incomplete. You must add to
them from old notes. Be sure to understand
them at a deep level, being able to provide
multiple examples, preferably personal
examples. This will ensure a deeper
comprehension of what is needed for success
on the midterm and the AP Exam
Units 1 and 2
Eight Perspectives:
1. Psychoanalytic-unconscious childhood experiences
2. Behavioral-rewards (reinforcements) and punishments
impact on behavior/learning
3. Biological/biomedical-brain chemistry/body systems
4. Evolutionary-reproduction/survival
5. Humanistic-innate potential for growth
6. Socio-cultural/Social Learning-imitation of
models/one’s culture
7. Biopsychosocial-combination of perspectives
8. Cognitive-problem solving. language; interpretation of
situations
Unit 2 - Research
positive correlation-as one variable increases,
so does the other ; as one variable decreases,
so does the other
negative correlation-one variable increases
the other decreases
mean-average score
mode-most frequently occurring score (can be
bimodal)
median-middle score (even, must add and
divide center scores)
Figure 2.14 Interpreting correlation coefficients
Correlation
Correlation
Correlation
Correlation
Correlation
Correlation
Scatterplot=best way to show variable
relationship
Hours Spent Watching Television per Day & GPA
PER HRS
GPA
1
0.5 3.50
2
1
3.75
3
2
4.00
4
2.5
2.75
5
3
2.75
6
3.5
1.75
7
4.5
2.25
8
5
1.50
9
5
2.50
10
7
1.00
Which statistic approximates the relationship between the variables?
50%
N=20
N=10
r=-.90
r=.50
Unit 2 Review
longitudinal study study same people over a long period
disadvantage=expensive; drop out
advantage=same cohort, less confounding variables
cross sectional study different cohorts at the same time, less
expensive and less time; disadvantage=different cohorts
Survey- questionnaire (can study more people, study things not
ethical through experiment)
case study- in depth study of an individual (used for rare occurrences
of events/illnesses)
experimental study or Research-manipulation of Independent variable
(experimental group receives the treatment/control group does
not) to see it’s effect on the dependent variable
Unit 2 Review
placebo effect-expectations lead to expected results
operational definitions -clear definitions of IV and DV; purpose is
replication of study, most needed aspect of a study so study
can be refuted or verified (makes study scientific)
descriptive statistics describes data– mean, mode , median,
standard deviation
statistical inference-conclusions drawn about the relationship
between variables, from a sample to entire population
random sampling/representative sample -all in population have
equal chance of selection, Rep. sample is only way to
generalize results to population
random assignment-participants have equal chance of
placement in control or experimental groups; lessons
confounding variables
Unit 2 Review
normal curve
distribution of scores-68% fall within 1 SD above/below the
mean
standard deviation -how far scores are from the mean-if
scores deviate 10 points, curve by 10 points, how far will
scores deviate from mean???
statistical significance - relationship between IV and DV not
due to chance (.05 level of significance)
percentile scores – the same as or better than 72% of
population/test takers
scatterplots - shows relationship between variables=best way
Unit 2 Review
American Psychological Associations ethical guidelines for
research:
1. Informed consent – participant’s permission, told
potential risks, offered alternative activity
2. No harm to humans
3. Minimal harm to animals
4. Debriefing to offset deception
5. Confidentiality- cannot share names (includes test
scores-UNLESS WRITTEN PERMISSION PROVIDED)
Unit 5 Consciousness
circadian rhythm – 24 hour biological clock regulated
by light-jet lag throws off circadian rhythm
somnambulism – sleep walking, non-REM
narcolepsy – uncontrolled sleep, go into REM
(amphetamines used)
sleep terrors – appearance of terror, non-REM, no
memory
sleep apnea – interrupted breathing and brief
awakening
insomnia - trouble falling/staying asleep; early waking
REM Sleep – dreaming stage
Unit 5 Consciousness
stimulants- Amphetamines-excite CNS
depressants- alcohol, barbiturates-slows the
CNS
withdrawal- Physical symptoms when no drug
tolerance- needing increasing amount of drug
to get same effect
hallucinogens- cause hallucinations=
visual/auditory perceptions, Marijuana (mild),
LSD
Unit 5 Review
Hypnosis
state theory =actual alternative
consciousness; pain control due to diversion
of attention
role theory=playing a role that is expected
Unit 6-Learning Review
Classical Conditioning-Pavlov (behavioral
perspective)
• UCS (Natural-food)
• UCR (Natural to UCR-Salivation)
• CS (Paired with UCS-food and bell –CS)
• CR (Salivation is Result of CS-bell)
Unit 6 –Learning Review
Operant Conditioning – BF Skinner
Positive Reinforcement=increase behavior (buckling seat belt);
money pops out of dash(reward)
Response to a reward is called an Operant Response
Negative Reinforcement=increases behavior by removing a
noxious stimulus (seat belt buzz, I buckle; painful sound ends
Shaping= reward close behaviors (successive approximations)
to desired behavior (ex. Potty training)
Discrimination/ dicrimination learning= only responding to
the original conditioned stimulus in Classical Conditioning
Generalization= Responding to stimuli similar to the CS
(learning that spoons are table wear, but realizing that forks
are table wear)
Extinction= CR no longer occurs because no pairing with the
US or because of no reward in Classical Conditioning ; no
reward presented in Operant Conditioning
Unit 6 Learning
Operant Conditioning
Primary Reinforcers=food, water
Secondary reinforcers= acquire their value through
learning (cars, grades, money, oxen, etc..)
Biological preparedness = more apt to develop
phobias of those things that were/are a threat
(snakes, heights, insects)
Criticism of Skinner – did not consider cognition’s
(organism's thinking) impact on learning-only
looked at environment’s impact
Unit 6 Learning
• Schedules of reinforcement (fixed ratio and interval, varied
ratio and interval-varied schedules are more resistant to
extinction because less predictable)
• Robert Rescorla’s contingency model of classical
conditioning=cognition plays a role in conditioning-must
realize my behavior leads to outcome
• Latent learning= using things learned at a later time then
when learned (esp. with modeling)
• Learned helplessness= do not try since your actions do not
result in good outcome
• Biofeedback = use awareness of physiological responses to
change those responses
• Habituation=No longer react to a repeated stimuli
Observational Learning
Albert Bandura= imitate others called models
Also called:
1. Socio-cultural theory/perspective
2. Social learning theory
3. Cultural Perspective
Mirror neurons-set of brain cells responsible for
observational learning
Memory 7A
procedural memory- non declarative, how to
walk, tie a knot, ride a bike
episodic memory- declarative, events in our lives;
diary-my trip to Niagara Falls
semantic memory – declarative; facts; where is
Niagara Falls?
declarative memory- can put into words (1.
Episodic and 2. Semantic Memories)
non-declarative memory- cannot put into words
(1. Emotional and 2. Procedural Memories)
serial position effect- items in beginning and end
remembered more than in middle of event/list
Memory Unit 7A
Primacy effect=remember items/event at beginning
of list/event rather than in middle
Recency effect =remember items/event at end of
list/event rather than in middle
Serial memory or learning = memorizing or
learning things in order or reverse order
Automatic processing = goes into memory without
effort; happens more when we are performing
well known activities
Tip-of-tongue phenomenon= feels like information
is very close to being retrieved
Memory Unit 7A
Elizabeth Loftus= eyewitness accounts are not
always accurate and are influenced by
1. Memory reconstruction = fill in information
with our schemas
2. Framing = the way information is presented
impacts how it is perceived (car accident verses
car crash)
State Dependent memory= recall info better when
recalled in same state of consciousness as when
we learned it (tired, drunk, alert, etc…)
Memory 7A
retrograde amnesia can’t remember events before
injury
anterograde amnesia can’t remember events after
injury-50 first dates
priming-activating the semantic networks
Framing- the way the problem/situation is presented
impacts one’s view/decision (car accident wording)
levels of processing theory- deep encoding ( by
meaning) is best for input/recall
proactive interference-old info. interferes with
learning new
retroactive interference-new interferes with old
Rehearsal= repeating info. over and over; needed to
get info from STM to LTM (as with a phone #)
elaborative rehearsal- using examples is best, esp.
self referent encoding (personal examples)
Motivation and Emotion Unit 8A/B
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (People Sniff Because Everyone
Smells-Self Actualized make own choices, not influenced by
others, innate need/life goal
Three Kinds of Conflict:
1. Approach/Approach (FSU or UF)
2. Approach/Avoidance (Good Option with Possible Bad
Outcome: Ask someone to prom-May reject you)
3. Avoidance/Avoidance (Back Surgery or Continued Pain)
Optimal Arousal Theory- we seek to maintain right level of
arousal in different daily activities
Drive Reduction Theory-seek homeostasis (biological
equilibrium/balance) when physical need causes a state of
tension (ex. Put jacket on when cold)
Incentive Theory- something outside pulls us to behavior
(new car, getting a date, good grades, etc…)
Motivation and Emotion UNIT 8A/B
Those with high achievement motive will see
people attaining or surpassing some goal on
the TAT (Thematic Apperception Test)
Extrinsic Motive =engage in activity for the
consequence that results from activity
(money, good grades, friends, etc…)
Intrinsic = engage in activity for the enjoyment
of the activity itself
Hypothalamus= controls hunger
and satiety (fullness)
Motivation and Emotion Unit 8A/B
Sympathetic (activates) and parasympathetic (calms) nervous
systems physiological reaction to threat/stress:
Sympathetic: Pupils dilate, respiration increases, perspiration
increases, heart rate increases, digestion slows, mouth gets dry
Parasympathetic: opposite
Yerk-Dodson Law and performance (arousal level and performance
interact)=As task difficulty Increases, lower arousal needed; for
easier task, higher arousal needed
Schachter Singer Two Factor Theory=Stimulus  Pysiological
Response (heart pounds)Interpret /Cognitive Appraisal of Heart
Pound Emotional Experience (Love/Fear/Extreme Joy)
Facial feedback theory= When I smile I start to feel happy
self-efficacy
Set Point Theory=Weight stays the same due to hunger and
metabolism changes that work to maintain my ideal weight
homosexuality and genetic influence
Development-Unit 9
All of Piaget’s Cognitive Development Concepts/Stages:
Assimialtion- information goes into existing schema
Accomodation- change or create new schema for new info.
1.Sensory Motor-object permanence
2 . Preoperational-centration, animism and egocentrism
3. Concrete Operational-Decentration, conservation; reversibility; seriation
4. Formal Operations-Hypothetical Reasoning
Carol Gilligan’s moral development concepts= male and females are different
in moral development
Attachment concepts =secure attachment in infancy results in social
competence, trust in the world
Mary Ainsworth-securely attached babies cry when mom leaves, play when
she is gone, excited to see mom when returns
Harry Harlow’s Study-contact comfort
Kohlberg’s Moral Reasoning
– 3 levels
• Preconventional (no-he may get caught and go to
jail)
• Conventional (moral choice based on how others
will view them-they want to be seen as good-steal
the drug so others would see him as a hero)
• Postconventional=(morality of social rules are
evaluated rather then blindly accepting rulestranscends beyond society rules-ex., conscientious
objector)
Erickson’s Psychosocial Development:
Development-Unit 9
Habituation=infants do not show as much interest in previously
seen (and therefore learned), or adults adjust to repeated
stimulation
Type A and B Personalities-The anger of A connected to
arteriosclerosis (heart disease)
Infant reflexes (see old notes)
Visual Cliff Study=Depth perception starts with crawling since
fear of the visual cliff sets in
Three Parenting Styles (permissive-do as you please,
authoritative-fair, authoritarian-dictator type)
primary (needed for reproduction: testes, sperm production,
ovaries, menstruation) verses secondary sex characteristics:
facial hair, breasts, wide hips, etc…)
Imprinting and critical period=attachment needs to occur at a
specified time
Development UNIT 9
Gender role development= process of learning the roles
of being male or female (boy mows lawn with dad)
Nature verses nurture = genetic influence and
environment
Instrumental aggression(aimed to get something-a toy
from another child) verses hostile aggression (just
being mean)
sex determination= by father (dad provides X or Y; mom
provided an X) X=female; Y=male
Homosexuality=genetic aspect as seen in identical twins
Personality –Unit 10
Defense Mechanisms: defends ego against of unconscious desires
• Sublimation=take out frustrations in a socially acceptable way (the gym)
• Denial=refuse to believe reality (boyfriend would never cheat on me!)
• Repression= Can not recall painful events (most disputed since painful events
difficult to forget)
• Projection= see my faults in others (she is so lazy, when I am lazy)
• Displacement= Take out aggression on a safe target (yell at brother when I had a
bad day at school)
• Rationalization= Explain away failure or flaws
• Regression= act immature (I whine when I do not get my way)
• Reaction Formation= Behave opposite of what I feel (I am extra nice to someone I
dislike)
Ego: Conscious level , seeks to satisfy both ID and Super Ego
Id: Impulsive, pleasure principal
Super-ego: Conscience, guilt over feelings and desires
Neo Freudians (Horney, Erikson, Yung, Adler)theory of Psychoanalytic
perspective=less concerned with libido
Personality UNIT 10
Neo Freudians (Horney, Erikson, Yung, Adler)theory of
Psychoanalytic perspective=less concerned with libido
Carl Rogers (Humanist):
• Conditional Positive Regard=love with conditions, or
only when one behaves in a certain way
• Unconditional Positive Regard=love given regardless of
one’s behaviors
Bandura: High and low self efficacy =belief in one’s ability
impacts the behaviors one engages and performances
in those behaviors
Personality Unit 10
Traits =consistent behavioral characteristics,
more consistent over time than situation
BIG FIVE Model of personality (is a trait
theory)=
Conscientiousness - reliable, timely (or not)
Agreeableness-easygoing or not
Neuroticism –how ones copes with life
emotionally
Openness degree of openness to new
experiences
Extroversion- outgoing or not