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AP Psychology-Midterm Review 2015-2016 Units 1, 2, 5, 6, 7A, 8, 9, and 10 Please Note: These concepts are incomplete. You must add to them from old notes. Be sure to understand them at a deep level, being able to provide multiple examples, preferably personal examples. This will ensure a deeper comprehension of what is needed for success on the midterm and the AP Exam Units 1 and 2 Eight Perspectives: 1. Psychoanalytic-unconscious childhood experiences 2. Behavioral-rewards (reinforcements) and punishments impact on behavior/learning 3. Biological/biomedical-brain chemistry/body systems 4. Evolutionary-reproduction/survival 5. Humanistic-innate potential for growth 6. Socio-cultural/Social Learning-imitation of models/one’s culture 7. Biopsychosocial-combination of perspectives 8. Cognitive-problem solving. language; interpretation of situations Unit 2 - Research positive correlation-as one variable increases, so does the other ; as one variable decreases, so does the other negative correlation-one variable increases the other decreases mean-average score mode-most frequently occurring score (can be bimodal) median-middle score (even, must add and divide center scores) Figure 2.14 Interpreting correlation coefficients Correlation Correlation Correlation Correlation Correlation Correlation Scatterplot=best way to show variable relationship Hours Spent Watching Television per Day & GPA PER HRS GPA 1 0.5 3.50 2 1 3.75 3 2 4.00 4 2.5 2.75 5 3 2.75 6 3.5 1.75 7 4.5 2.25 8 5 1.50 9 5 2.50 10 7 1.00 Which statistic approximates the relationship between the variables? 50% N=20 N=10 r=-.90 r=.50 Unit 2 Review longitudinal study study same people over a long period disadvantage=expensive; drop out advantage=same cohort, less confounding variables cross sectional study different cohorts at the same time, less expensive and less time; disadvantage=different cohorts Survey- questionnaire (can study more people, study things not ethical through experiment) case study- in depth study of an individual (used for rare occurrences of events/illnesses) experimental study or Research-manipulation of Independent variable (experimental group receives the treatment/control group does not) to see it’s effect on the dependent variable Unit 2 Review placebo effect-expectations lead to expected results operational definitions -clear definitions of IV and DV; purpose is replication of study, most needed aspect of a study so study can be refuted or verified (makes study scientific) descriptive statistics describes data– mean, mode , median, standard deviation statistical inference-conclusions drawn about the relationship between variables, from a sample to entire population random sampling/representative sample -all in population have equal chance of selection, Rep. sample is only way to generalize results to population random assignment-participants have equal chance of placement in control or experimental groups; lessons confounding variables Unit 2 Review normal curve distribution of scores-68% fall within 1 SD above/below the mean standard deviation -how far scores are from the mean-if scores deviate 10 points, curve by 10 points, how far will scores deviate from mean??? statistical significance - relationship between IV and DV not due to chance (.05 level of significance) percentile scores – the same as or better than 72% of population/test takers scatterplots - shows relationship between variables=best way Unit 2 Review American Psychological Associations ethical guidelines for research: 1. Informed consent – participant’s permission, told potential risks, offered alternative activity 2. No harm to humans 3. Minimal harm to animals 4. Debriefing to offset deception 5. Confidentiality- cannot share names (includes test scores-UNLESS WRITTEN PERMISSION PROVIDED) Unit 5 Consciousness circadian rhythm – 24 hour biological clock regulated by light-jet lag throws off circadian rhythm somnambulism – sleep walking, non-REM narcolepsy – uncontrolled sleep, go into REM (amphetamines used) sleep terrors – appearance of terror, non-REM, no memory sleep apnea – interrupted breathing and brief awakening insomnia - trouble falling/staying asleep; early waking REM Sleep – dreaming stage Unit 5 Consciousness stimulants- Amphetamines-excite CNS depressants- alcohol, barbiturates-slows the CNS withdrawal- Physical symptoms when no drug tolerance- needing increasing amount of drug to get same effect hallucinogens- cause hallucinations= visual/auditory perceptions, Marijuana (mild), LSD Unit 5 Review Hypnosis state theory =actual alternative consciousness; pain control due to diversion of attention role theory=playing a role that is expected Unit 6-Learning Review Classical Conditioning-Pavlov (behavioral perspective) • UCS (Natural-food) • UCR (Natural to UCR-Salivation) • CS (Paired with UCS-food and bell –CS) • CR (Salivation is Result of CS-bell) Unit 6 –Learning Review Operant Conditioning – BF Skinner Positive Reinforcement=increase behavior (buckling seat belt); money pops out of dash(reward) Response to a reward is called an Operant Response Negative Reinforcement=increases behavior by removing a noxious stimulus (seat belt buzz, I buckle; painful sound ends Shaping= reward close behaviors (successive approximations) to desired behavior (ex. Potty training) Discrimination/ dicrimination learning= only responding to the original conditioned stimulus in Classical Conditioning Generalization= Responding to stimuli similar to the CS (learning that spoons are table wear, but realizing that forks are table wear) Extinction= CR no longer occurs because no pairing with the US or because of no reward in Classical Conditioning ; no reward presented in Operant Conditioning Unit 6 Learning Operant Conditioning Primary Reinforcers=food, water Secondary reinforcers= acquire their value through learning (cars, grades, money, oxen, etc..) Biological preparedness = more apt to develop phobias of those things that were/are a threat (snakes, heights, insects) Criticism of Skinner – did not consider cognition’s (organism's thinking) impact on learning-only looked at environment’s impact Unit 6 Learning • Schedules of reinforcement (fixed ratio and interval, varied ratio and interval-varied schedules are more resistant to extinction because less predictable) • Robert Rescorla’s contingency model of classical conditioning=cognition plays a role in conditioning-must realize my behavior leads to outcome • Latent learning= using things learned at a later time then when learned (esp. with modeling) • Learned helplessness= do not try since your actions do not result in good outcome • Biofeedback = use awareness of physiological responses to change those responses • Habituation=No longer react to a repeated stimuli Observational Learning Albert Bandura= imitate others called models Also called: 1. Socio-cultural theory/perspective 2. Social learning theory 3. Cultural Perspective Mirror neurons-set of brain cells responsible for observational learning Memory 7A procedural memory- non declarative, how to walk, tie a knot, ride a bike episodic memory- declarative, events in our lives; diary-my trip to Niagara Falls semantic memory – declarative; facts; where is Niagara Falls? declarative memory- can put into words (1. Episodic and 2. Semantic Memories) non-declarative memory- cannot put into words (1. Emotional and 2. Procedural Memories) serial position effect- items in beginning and end remembered more than in middle of event/list Memory Unit 7A Primacy effect=remember items/event at beginning of list/event rather than in middle Recency effect =remember items/event at end of list/event rather than in middle Serial memory or learning = memorizing or learning things in order or reverse order Automatic processing = goes into memory without effort; happens more when we are performing well known activities Tip-of-tongue phenomenon= feels like information is very close to being retrieved Memory Unit 7A Elizabeth Loftus= eyewitness accounts are not always accurate and are influenced by 1. Memory reconstruction = fill in information with our schemas 2. Framing = the way information is presented impacts how it is perceived (car accident verses car crash) State Dependent memory= recall info better when recalled in same state of consciousness as when we learned it (tired, drunk, alert, etc…) Memory 7A retrograde amnesia can’t remember events before injury anterograde amnesia can’t remember events after injury-50 first dates priming-activating the semantic networks Framing- the way the problem/situation is presented impacts one’s view/decision (car accident wording) levels of processing theory- deep encoding ( by meaning) is best for input/recall proactive interference-old info. interferes with learning new retroactive interference-new interferes with old Rehearsal= repeating info. over and over; needed to get info from STM to LTM (as with a phone #) elaborative rehearsal- using examples is best, esp. self referent encoding (personal examples) Motivation and Emotion Unit 8A/B Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (People Sniff Because Everyone Smells-Self Actualized make own choices, not influenced by others, innate need/life goal Three Kinds of Conflict: 1. Approach/Approach (FSU or UF) 2. Approach/Avoidance (Good Option with Possible Bad Outcome: Ask someone to prom-May reject you) 3. Avoidance/Avoidance (Back Surgery or Continued Pain) Optimal Arousal Theory- we seek to maintain right level of arousal in different daily activities Drive Reduction Theory-seek homeostasis (biological equilibrium/balance) when physical need causes a state of tension (ex. Put jacket on when cold) Incentive Theory- something outside pulls us to behavior (new car, getting a date, good grades, etc…) Motivation and Emotion UNIT 8A/B Those with high achievement motive will see people attaining or surpassing some goal on the TAT (Thematic Apperception Test) Extrinsic Motive =engage in activity for the consequence that results from activity (money, good grades, friends, etc…) Intrinsic = engage in activity for the enjoyment of the activity itself Hypothalamus= controls hunger and satiety (fullness) Motivation and Emotion Unit 8A/B Sympathetic (activates) and parasympathetic (calms) nervous systems physiological reaction to threat/stress: Sympathetic: Pupils dilate, respiration increases, perspiration increases, heart rate increases, digestion slows, mouth gets dry Parasympathetic: opposite Yerk-Dodson Law and performance (arousal level and performance interact)=As task difficulty Increases, lower arousal needed; for easier task, higher arousal needed Schachter Singer Two Factor Theory=Stimulus Pysiological Response (heart pounds)Interpret /Cognitive Appraisal of Heart Pound Emotional Experience (Love/Fear/Extreme Joy) Facial feedback theory= When I smile I start to feel happy self-efficacy Set Point Theory=Weight stays the same due to hunger and metabolism changes that work to maintain my ideal weight homosexuality and genetic influence Development-Unit 9 All of Piaget’s Cognitive Development Concepts/Stages: Assimialtion- information goes into existing schema Accomodation- change or create new schema for new info. 1.Sensory Motor-object permanence 2 . Preoperational-centration, animism and egocentrism 3. Concrete Operational-Decentration, conservation; reversibility; seriation 4. Formal Operations-Hypothetical Reasoning Carol Gilligan’s moral development concepts= male and females are different in moral development Attachment concepts =secure attachment in infancy results in social competence, trust in the world Mary Ainsworth-securely attached babies cry when mom leaves, play when she is gone, excited to see mom when returns Harry Harlow’s Study-contact comfort Kohlberg’s Moral Reasoning – 3 levels • Preconventional (no-he may get caught and go to jail) • Conventional (moral choice based on how others will view them-they want to be seen as good-steal the drug so others would see him as a hero) • Postconventional=(morality of social rules are evaluated rather then blindly accepting rulestranscends beyond society rules-ex., conscientious objector) Erickson’s Psychosocial Development: Development-Unit 9 Habituation=infants do not show as much interest in previously seen (and therefore learned), or adults adjust to repeated stimulation Type A and B Personalities-The anger of A connected to arteriosclerosis (heart disease) Infant reflexes (see old notes) Visual Cliff Study=Depth perception starts with crawling since fear of the visual cliff sets in Three Parenting Styles (permissive-do as you please, authoritative-fair, authoritarian-dictator type) primary (needed for reproduction: testes, sperm production, ovaries, menstruation) verses secondary sex characteristics: facial hair, breasts, wide hips, etc…) Imprinting and critical period=attachment needs to occur at a specified time Development UNIT 9 Gender role development= process of learning the roles of being male or female (boy mows lawn with dad) Nature verses nurture = genetic influence and environment Instrumental aggression(aimed to get something-a toy from another child) verses hostile aggression (just being mean) sex determination= by father (dad provides X or Y; mom provided an X) X=female; Y=male Homosexuality=genetic aspect as seen in identical twins Personality –Unit 10 Defense Mechanisms: defends ego against of unconscious desires • Sublimation=take out frustrations in a socially acceptable way (the gym) • Denial=refuse to believe reality (boyfriend would never cheat on me!) • Repression= Can not recall painful events (most disputed since painful events difficult to forget) • Projection= see my faults in others (she is so lazy, when I am lazy) • Displacement= Take out aggression on a safe target (yell at brother when I had a bad day at school) • Rationalization= Explain away failure or flaws • Regression= act immature (I whine when I do not get my way) • Reaction Formation= Behave opposite of what I feel (I am extra nice to someone I dislike) Ego: Conscious level , seeks to satisfy both ID and Super Ego Id: Impulsive, pleasure principal Super-ego: Conscience, guilt over feelings and desires Neo Freudians (Horney, Erikson, Yung, Adler)theory of Psychoanalytic perspective=less concerned with libido Personality UNIT 10 Neo Freudians (Horney, Erikson, Yung, Adler)theory of Psychoanalytic perspective=less concerned with libido Carl Rogers (Humanist): • Conditional Positive Regard=love with conditions, or only when one behaves in a certain way • Unconditional Positive Regard=love given regardless of one’s behaviors Bandura: High and low self efficacy =belief in one’s ability impacts the behaviors one engages and performances in those behaviors Personality Unit 10 Traits =consistent behavioral characteristics, more consistent over time than situation BIG FIVE Model of personality (is a trait theory)= Conscientiousness - reliable, timely (or not) Agreeableness-easygoing or not Neuroticism –how ones copes with life emotionally Openness degree of openness to new experiences Extroversion- outgoing or not