Download Cognitive Approaches

REVIEW 10-18
Cognitive Development
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Chapter 10
Jean Piaget—Discontinuous
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Equilibration-balance between demands of
environment and child’s abilities
Assimilation-add new info to existing
schema
Accommodation-modify existing schema
Stage 1: Sensorimotor 0-2
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Object permanence—about 9 months
realize out of sight still exists
Representational thought begins 18-24
months
Stage 2: Preoperational 2-7
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Egocentrism—thinks everyone sees same
as them
Animistic—inanimate objects are alive
Artificialistic—natural objects/events made
by man
Stage 3: ConcreteOperational 7-12
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Conservation of quantity
Stage 4: Formal-Operational
11+
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Abstract thought; algebra, etc
Criticisms of Piaget
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All naturalistic observation
Question discontinuous stages
Question explanations for difficulties
Ages may be off
Western culture specific
Neo-Piagetians
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5th stage: Post-formal
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Dialectical thinking
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Thesis, antithesis, synthesis
Lev Vygotsky—continuous
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Internalization-respond to external stimuli
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
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Range between present abilities and those
that might develop with prompting
Cognitive theorists-continuous
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Mental operations
Analysis of mental operations
 How changes occur
 Learning in specific areas
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Memory
Metamemory-awareness of memory process
 Young children less likely to use elaborative
 Helps if in order
 Repeated experience
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Social Development
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Emotion: subjective, conscious
experience accompanied by bodily arousal
and typical facial expression
Cognitive component—subjective,
conscious experience
Physiological component—bodily arousal
Right prefrontal cortex-negative affect
 Left prefrontal cortex-positive affect
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Behavioral component—facial expression
Emotional Development
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Discrepancy Theory
Assimilation
 Notes Discrepancy
Recognizes familiar stimulus
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Differentiation Theory
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Generalized state of arousal at birth that
differentiates into different emotions
(specialized)
Discrete-Emotions
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Hardwired predisposition to specific emotions
Cognitive-evolutionary theory
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Emotions help us adapt to changing needs
and situations
Joy-about to achieve goal
 Anger-stopped from goal
 Sadness-goal in unobtainable
 Fear-withdrawal from stimulus
 Interest-novel situation
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Erik Erikson
1.
2.
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5.
6.
7.
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Trust vs. Mistrust (Hope)
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (Mastery)
Initiative vs. guilt (Purpose)
Industry vs. inferiority (Competence)
Identity vs. Role confusion (Fidelity)
Intimacy vs. Isolation (Unselfish love)
Generativity vs. Stagnation (Productivity)
Integrity vs. Despair (Wisdom)
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Will: Control over emotions, thoughts, etc
Competence
James Marcia
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Identity Development
Identity Achievement—Examined choices and
made decision
 Identity Moratorium—Examined choices but
no decision yet
 Identity Foreclosure—Decision based on
others (parents)not your own
 Identity Diffusion—No examination, no choice;
no direction
 Alienated Achievement—Rejects society
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Self-concept: view of self
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Western culture—independence and
individualism
Some Asian cultures—interdependence
and collectivistic
Self-understanding (Damon & Hart)
Successive differentiation
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Physical self—name, body and possessions
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Earliest—infants know self in mirror, voice
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Active self—behaviors
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Elementary school
Social self—relations with others
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Toddlers know name, gender
Early adolescence
Psychological self—feelings, beliefs, personality
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Late adolescence
Self-esteem—value we place
on ourselves
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Harter—differentiation in four domains:
cognitive competence, physical competence,
social competence, and behavioral conduct
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Age 4-7 Halo effect—overestimate ratings
Age 8-12 New domains: scholastic, athletic, peer
acceptance, behavioral conduct, physical appearance
Adulthood—11 areas: intelligence, self-worth, humor,
job competence, morality, athletic ability, physical
appearance, sociability, intimacy, nurturance,
provider, household management
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William James—self-esteem based on our
value of importance for areas
Cooley—based on how others social
judgment
Harter—synthesis of the two
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Becomes more modest and accurate as
we age.
If underestimate, low motivation, less
challenging tasks, etc
Girls more often underestimate abilities,
especially math
Teenage girls have negative body image
Temperament:
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tendency for emotions in terms of intensity,
duration and frequency
Consistent over time
Shaped by genetics and environment
Temperament study
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Thomas and Chess—3 temperaments
Easy babies—40% playful, adaptable,
 Difficult babies—10% irritable
 Slow-to-warm-up babies—15%
 Doesn’t fit criteria—33%
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Implications of temperament
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Difficult babies need patient parents
Easy and difficult are value measures
Self-fulfilling prophecy dangers
Psychosexual Development
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Gender typing—assuming psychological
and social roles of gender
Gender constancy—gender is stable
Social-Learning Theory
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Psychosexual development comes from
role models and rewards
Schema Theory—Sandra Bem
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Gender schema through interaction with
environment
Attachment Types
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Avoidant attachment type (A): ignores
mother, minimal distress at absence
Secure attachment type (B): distress as
mother leaves, can be calmed by stranger
Resistant attachment type (C): runs to
and resists mother
Disorganized attachment pattern: after
reunited, confused and disoriented
Criticisms:
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1.
2.
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4.
Not stable
Temperament, not attachment?
Brief experiment
Implied value judgment
Parenting Style
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Authoritarian--very strict--leads to
distrustful children
Permissive--too much freedom--children
immature and dependent
Authoritative--reasoning, responsibility,
limits--well-adjusted children
KOHLBERG'S Moral Development
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Level 1: Preconventional --At this
level judgement is based solely on a
person's own needs and perceptions.
Stage 1: Punishment-obedience
Orientation
Stage 2: Personal Reward
Orientation
Level 2: Conventional
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--The expectations of society and
society's laws are taken into
account in a decision about a
moral dilemma.
Stage 3: Good boy-Nice girl
Orientation
Stage 4: Law and Order
Orientation
Level 3: Postconventional
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--Judgements are based on
abstract, more personal
principles that aren't necessarily
defined by society's laws.
Stage 5: Social Contract
Orientation
Stage 6: Universal Ethical
Principle Orientation
Motivation
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Motive: an impulse,desire
or need that leads to
action
Motivation: Processes
that give behavior its
energy and direction
Early theories of Motivation
Instinct Theory:
1. Inherited
2. Species-specific
3. Stereotyped
Automatically as
response to stimulus
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James)
Drive Theory
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Drive Reduction
Theory (Clark Hull)
Drive is an impulse to
satisfy a need
Primary Drivesbiological (thirst,
hunger)
Secondary Driveslearned
Arousal Theory
Yerkes-Dodson Law
Optimal level of
arousal:
Too high or too low
affects performance
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Opponent-Process Theory
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Baseline
Acquired Motivation
for greater stimulus
Habituated
Opponent-process to
return to baseline
from either above or
below
Homeostatic Regulation
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Maintain equilibrium
using negativefeedback loop
Theory of Needs
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Henry Murray
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Twenty “needs” such
as power, affiliation,
achievement
Need for Achievement
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David McClelland
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High need for
achievement take on
moderately
challenging task they
are likely to succeed
and pass
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Basic
Needs
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Must meet our basic
needs before we can
meet our “meta
needs” and obtain
self-actualization
Cognitive Approaches
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Intrinsic Motivators
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“within”
Extrinsic Motivators
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“outside”
Explanatory Style
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Optimistic explanatory
style--Internal locus of
control
Pessimistic
explanatory style-External locus of
control
Self-Efficacy Theory
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Albert Bandura:
Beliefs about ability to
reach goals
influences our actual
success
Hunger Regulation
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Mouth
Stomach
Hypothalamus
Mouth
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“Sham feeding”
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Dogs stopped eating
even if food chewed
and swallowed
Stomach
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Hunger pangs
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Contractions of
stomach signal
hunger BUT people
without stomachs still
feel hungry
Hypothalamus
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Lateral
Hypothalamus--”ON”
switch
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Ventromedial
hypothalamus--”OFF”
switch
Glucostatic Hypothesis
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VMH & LH monitor level of glucose and
determine the need for food
Lipostatic Hypothesis
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VMH & LH monitor levels of lipids (fat) and
determine the need for food
Set-point theory
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Hypothalamus controls hunger and
metabolic rate. Everyone has preset body
weight determined by number of fat cells.
Fat cells expand as we gain weight and
contracts as we lose weight. When we
lose weight, it is difficult to get below set
point. Our bodies interpret starvation and
respond by storing fat. If we gain weight
over time, set-point may increase.
Sex
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Hypothalamus
Evolution
Sexual scripts &
norms
Theories of
homosexuality
Emotions
Early Psychophysiological
Approaches
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Common Sense:
Cry because we are sad; run because we
are afraid
Stimulusemotionautonomic arousal
James-Lange theory:
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Emotions follow, don’t cause behavior
Afraid because we run
StimulusAutonomic arousalConscious
feeling
Bear-----Heart beating, etc--Fear
Cannon-Bard theory:
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Emotions accompany bodily responses
Stimulusmental processingexperience
of emotion
Body change and cognitive change occur
at the same time
Modern Psychophysiological
Approaches
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Central Nervous System
Different emotions create different patterns
of ANS arousal
Endocrine System
Emotions related to levels of hormones
released
Angernorepinephrine
Fearepinephrine
Cognitive Approaches
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Schacter-Singer Cognitive Appraisal
(Two-factor theory)
Stimulus &
arousalinterpretationemotion
Physical reaction is similar for different
emotions
Label the emotion based on context
Temporal-Sequence Theories
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Lazarus—Primary appraisalsecondary
appraisalreappraise
Appraise situationDecide course of
actionrethink if necessary
Zajonc—cognition and emotion are
separate. Evolutionary evidence to show
emotion preceded cognition
Social Psychology
Attitudes:
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learned, stable, enduring evaluation of
person, object, etc which affects behavior
Attitude Formation
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3 ways attitudes form:
Classical Conditioning
CS + UCS ------
CR/UCR
Commercial + TV show ---------
Favorable feelings
Attitude formation (cont.)
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Operant Conditioning—
Rewards/punishments for attitudes
Observational Learning—Children learn
attitudes from adults, tv, etc
Attitude Change:
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3 Factors influence Change
1. Recipient
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A. Central route—thoughtful arguments,
more stable
B. Peripheral route—situational
Appeal of sender, attractiveness, etc
2. Message
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A. Balanced presentation of viewpoints
B. Mere exposure effect.
3. The Source
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A. Credibility
B. Likability
Cognitive Consistency—
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Need for behaviors to match attitudes
Cognitive dissonance
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—mismatch of behaviors/attitudes.
Creates discomfort and must change
attitude to fit behavior
Self-perception theory—get
attitudes from behaviors
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From new attitudes to match behavior
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Cognitive Dissonance better explains if
people act against usual beliefs, attitudes
Self-perception theory—better explains
attitude formation
Attributions
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—mental explanations for causes of
behaviors in self and others
A. Personal attributions-causes are
internal
B. Situational—causes are external
Attributional Heuristics &
Biases
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Social Desirability—focus more on bad
behavior over good (picking nose is
restaurant despite big tip, etc)
Fundamental Attribution Error-Overemphasizes internal,
underemphasizes external
Actor-Observer Bias
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Attributes actions of others as stable, self
as situational.
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Self-serving biases—we give ourselves
the benefit of the doubt
Self-handicapping—we give ourselves
justifications for our failures
Forming Impressions
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Impression formation—use of available
information to create conceptions of
individuals
Solomon Asch: Found that central traits
are most influential in our formation of
impressions
Impression Formation
Heuristics & Biases
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Primacy Effect—first impressions really do
matter
Confirmation Bias—we tend to see things
that support our impressions and ignore
opposing information
Self-fulfilling prophecy—what we expect to
see, we see
Impression Formation
Heuristics & Biases
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Person-positivity bias---because it is
easier to change our opinion of an
individual rather than a group, we tend to
be more forgiving of individuals without
changing our opinions of the group to
which they belong. “He’s a good guy even
though he goes to Clayton”
Social-Comparison Theory
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We compare ourselves to others; may be
unrealistic depending upon to whom we
compare ourselves.
Groups
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Social facilitation: others improve
performance by their presence. Works on
easy, familiar, well learned tasks
Social inhibition: others diminish
performance by their presence. Works on
difficult, unfamiliar, unlearned tasks
Distraction-conflict theory: others distract
us and explain social facilitation/inhibition
Social Loafing: as group size
increases, loafing increases
Ways to decrease it:
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evaluation of individuals
Importance of task
Expectation of punishment
Group cohesiveness
Group Polarization:
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Views of individuals shift in direction of the
group
Groupthink (Viet Nam War)
Conformity, Compliance &
Obedience
Conformity—Solomon Asch
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Change behaviors to be consistent with
the group
Line length test
Most will conform—but not believe
About 25% won’t
Non-conformists—ridicule
7 Factors Influence
Conformity
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1) Group Size—Best with 3-4 people
2) Cohesiveness—Bennington College study
3) Gender—Women conform more than men:
May be explained by lower status
4) Social Status—Hi and Lo less likely to
conform, Middle most
5) Culture—Collective cultures more likely to
conform
6) Unanimity—More likely if group appears
unanimous: Even 1 dissenter matters
7) Idiosyncrasy—accepted by group even if
dissenter
Compliance—agreeing to
request of others
Compliance techniques:
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1. Justification—do this so that……
2. Reciprocity—you do this and I’ll do…
3. Low-ball—Agree to easy thing, then spring
hidden part of deal
4. Foot in the door—start from little to big
5. Door in the face---start big, then littler, more
reasonable request
6. That’s Not All—throw in something to
“sweeten the deal”
7. Hard to Get—convince them of rarity, etc
Obedience—follows
commands of others
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Stanley Milgram
ALL went to 300 volts (Mr. Wallace
screaming)
65% went to maximum 450 volts
Why?
Researchers use “foot in the door” method
Socialized to obey orders
Bystander effect, diffusion of
responsibility
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Kitty Genovese
Smoking room—Latane and Darley
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Personality
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Psychodynamic Theories
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Tri-Partite Self
 Id
 Ego
 Supereg
o
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ID
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Primitive process
Instinctive urges
 Eros--”life urge”
 Thanatos--”death urge”
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Pleasure Principle
Unconscious
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Superego
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Idealistic principle
Largely unconscious
Two parts
Ego ideal
 Conscience
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Ego
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Reality principle
Largely
conscious
Secondary
process
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Defense mechanisms
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Denial
Repression
Projection
Displacement
Sublimation
Reaction Formation
Rationalization
Regression
Denial
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It ain’t a river
in Egypt
It didn’t
happen
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Repression
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Push harmful
memories,
urges into our
unconscious
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Projection
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“Project” or recognize our own painful
urges/thoughts onto others
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Sublimation
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Take our bad energy and put it into
something good
Violent guy joins the army
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Displacement
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Direct energy towards “safe” recipient
Mad at boss so you kick your dog
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Reaction Formation
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Take something bad and make it the
opposite
Disliking someone you can’t “like”
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Rationalization
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Make up
excuses to
allow for
harmful
thoughts, urges
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Regression
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Hiding by returning to childish behaviors
Psychosexual Stages
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Oral
Anal
Phallic
Latency
Genital
Oral 0-2
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Centers around mouth
Fixation
Oral eroticism--sucking, eating, need to be
nurtured (oral passive)
 Oral sadism--biting, chewing, sarcastic (oral
aggressive)
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Anal (2-4)
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Centers around toilet
training
Anal-retentive--Neat
freak
Anal-expulsive--Sloppy
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Phallic (4-8+)
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Penis envy
Castration anxiety
Oedipal conflict
Electra conflict
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Latency (~8-12)
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Sexually repressed
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Genital (puberty-adulthood)
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Fully develop our personality unless
fixated
Neo-Freudians
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Alfred Adler
Carl Jung
Karen Horney
Object-relations theories
Alfred Adler
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Inferiority complex
Expectations for future
Based on “fictions”
Act on subjective perceptions
Carl Jung
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Personal and Collective Unconscious
Archetypes
Personality
Persona
 Shadow
 Anima/animus
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Synchronicity
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Co-incidence of events is actually
meaningful
http://lyrics.rockmagic.net/lyrics/police/syn
chronicity_1983.html - 01
Karen Horney
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Basic anxiety
Relieve basic anxiety by
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Showing affection to others
Strive for power
Withdraw
All are social responses
Trait Approach
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Gordon Allport
Raymond Cattell
Hans Eysneck
Meyers-Briggs
Gordon Allport
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Traits are inherited
Traits are fixed
Personality is a combination of 18,000
traits
Raymond Cattell
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Source and Surface Traits
16 PF (Personality Factors)
Spectrum of 16 PFs
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“Reserved vs. Outgoing”
Meyers-Briggs
16 combinations; 4 spectrums
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Introversion-extroversion
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Sensing-intuition
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Thinking-feeling
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Judgment-perception
Humanistic Approach
Abraham Maslow
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Hierarchy of basic needs
Carl Rogers
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Person-centered approach
Self-concept vs. Ideal-self
Goal: “Fully-functioning”
Cognitive-Behavioral
Approach
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Julian Rotter—Social-Learning Theory
Internal and external locus of control
Albert Bandura: SocialCognitive Approach
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Reciprocal Determinism
Interactions of behaviors, environment and
individual
Self-efficacy
Trait-Based Approach
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Cardinal, central and secondary traits
Inherited, fixed traits
Personality is a combination of 18,000 traits
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Raymond Cattell
Source and Surface traits
16 PF (personality factor)
Spectrum (“reserved vs. outgoing”)
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Gordon Allport:
Hans Eysenck
Extroversion, Neuroticism, Psychoticism
Big Five Personality Traits
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Neuroticism
Extroversion
Openness
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Meyers-Briggs
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16 combinations, 4 spectra
Introversion-extroversion
Sensing-Intuition
Thinking-Feeling
Judgment-Perception
Biological
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Jerome Kagan—temperament
Biological correlates for
disposition/temperament
Dopamine receptor gene linked to novelty
seeking
Interactionist Perspectives—
(Situational)
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Mark Snyder
Self-monitoring—monitor and change
behavior in response to situations
Zuckerman--Sensation seekers
Personality Tests
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Projective Tests
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Rorschach Inkblot
Thematic Apperception Test
Sentence Completion
Hand Test
Lüscher Color Test
Objective Personality Tests
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NEO-PI—Measures Big Five
MMPI-- (Minnesota Mulitphasic Personality Index)
Psychological
Disorders
Chapter 16
AXIS I Disorders
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Anxiety Disorders
Phobias
Specific phobias
Social phobias
Agoraphobia
Panic Disorders
GAD—Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Stress Disorders
PTSD (Posttraumatic stress disorder)
Acute Stress disorder
Obsessive-compulsive disorder
Explanations:
Psychodynamic
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Internal conflict
Objective anxiety—external world (fearnormal)
Moral anxiety—fear of punishment by
superego
Neurotic anxiety—fear superego can’t
control id
Humanistic
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Discrepancy between perceived self and
idealized self
Behavioral
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Classical conditioning-paired with fear
object
Vicarious conditioning—from observing
others
Operant conditioning—reinforcers
Cognitive
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Automatic self-defeating thoughts
Biological
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GABA leads to high arousal levels
Serotonin and anxiety
Mood Disorders
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Depression
SAD
Bipolar disorder
Explanations:
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Psychodynamic—inward anger over loss
Humanistic—lack of purpose
Behavioral—lack of reward or depression
is rewarded, learned helplessness
Cognitive—“stinkin’ thinking’”
Dissociative Disorders
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Separation of awareness from thoughts
and feelings
Dissociative amnesia: Loss follows
stressful event
Dissociative fugue
Dissociative identity disorder DID
Infancy, Childhood &
Adolescence
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ADHD
Conduct disorders
PDD--Pervasive Developmental Disorders
Axis II
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Personality Disorders
Paranoid Personality disorder
Schizoid Personality disorder: Difficulty forming relationships,
indifference to view of others
Schizotypal Personality disorder: Bizarre behavior, illusions, magic
(mild schizophrenia)
Borderline Personality disorder: Instability in moods, self-image, etc
Narcissitic: Inflated sense of self, lack empathy
Histrionic: Needs attention, drama
Avoidant: Low self-esteem, avoid relations with others
Dependent
Obsessive-compulsive Personality disorder: Perfectionists
Anti-social: Manipulative, self-centered, low baseline of arousal
Schizophrenia
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Disorganized (Hebephrenic)
Catatonic
Paranoid
Undifferentiated
Residual
Explanations
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Psychodynamic
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Primary narcissism--regression to time before
ego differentiates from id
Humanistic
Szasz-experiences world in a different way
 Laing--society labels problematic behavior
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More Explanation
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Behavioral
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Labeling--once labeled, more likely to engage
in behaviors
Cognitive
Patients try to relate unique sensory
experiences
 Stimulus overload
 Lack filtering mechanisms
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Explanations
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Biological
Excess of dopamine
 Enlarged ventricles
 Less use of prefrontal region
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