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Learning and Reward Selective Attention Learning and Reward Selective Attention Close your eyes Selective Attention How the brain selects which sensory stimuli to discard and which to pass along to higher levels of processing visual two-stage theory (Treisman) rapid, parallel extraction of elementary features color shape orientation Visual Two-Stage Theory rapid, parallel extraction of elementary features slower, more effortful integration of the extracted information to form objects requires attention to features But - if process the features separately, how does the brain know which features go with which objects? Binding Problem Treisman proposed attention is the binding “agent” illusionary conjunctions when observer’s attention divided/ overextended, features recombine incorrectly Auditory Selective Attention Cocktail party phenomenon ability to focus on a single conversation despite the background chatter and noise When you are at a party, what single word will you almost always be able to hear regardless of how much background noise? Early Selection Theories Early Selection choose stimuli we will attend to even before we process their basic features Filter Theory (Broadbent) Assumptions limited capacity for sensory information must therefore screen incoming info Late Selection Theories Late Selection “take in sensory information, process it, and then select which aspects of the stimuli should be attended” Multiple Stages Attention can act at different stages of processing may see some selective attention at early stages may see some selective attention at later stages Learning and Reward Learning Behaviour Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Physiological Basis Vicarious/ Observational Learning Habituation Sensitization Reward LTP Learning “a relatively enduring change in behaviour that results from experience” Learning includes: academic learning Learning “a relatively enduring change in behaviour that results from experience” Learning includes: academic learning riding a bike Learning “a relatively enduring change in behaviour that results from experience” Learning includes: academic learning riding a bike animals learning complicated routines Learning “a relatively enduring change in behaviour that results from experience” Learning includes: academic learning riding a bike animals learning complicated routines gamblers continuing to put money in slot machines Learning “a relatively enduring change in behaviour that results from experience” Learning includes: academic learning riding a bike animals learning complicated routines gamblers continuing to put money in slot machines continually checking your e-mail Learning learning theorists focus on observable behaviour rather than internal states or mental processes, which means they follow the _________ school of psychology Learning Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning both involve stimulus response Classical Conditioning commercial Classical Conditioning Association trying to quit smoking pairing of a stimulus that previously was neutral with one that already produces a response Prediction Classical Conditioning: Balloons Unconditioned stimulus: loud noise Unconditioned response: startle Conditioned stimulus: sight of needle approaching the balloon Conditioned response: preparation to startle/startle Classical Conditioning: Balloons Conditioned response similar but not identical to the unconditioned response weaker Classical Conditioning: Pavlov Dogs in research on digestion/salivation were noted to salivate when saw the dish where the food was kept or saw/heard the assistant who usually brought it presented a neutral stimulus (bell) which previously had no effect on salivation then paired sound of bell with meat powder placed in the dog’s mouth W. W. Norton Pavlov Basic Principles Acquisition process by which a previously neutral stimulus acquires the ability to elicit a conditioned response repeated pairings of an unconditioned stimulus with the conditioned stimulus Basic Principles Acquisition Extinction the conditioned stimulus no longer elicits the conditioned response so coffee no longer automatically elicits lighting up a cigarette necessary so we don’t become “walking collections of useless - but persistent conditioned responses Basic Principles Acquisition Extinction Spontaneous recovery reappearance of the reaction after a time interval reaction will be weaker Basic Principles Acquisition Extinction Spontaneous recovery Stimulus Generalization stimuli similar to conditioned stimuli elicit similar conditioned responses “Little Albert” Basic Principles Acquisition Extinction Spontaneous recovery Stimulus Generalization fear all dogs Stimulus Discrimination fear only specific breed of dog that bit you Basic Principles Acquisition Extinction Spontaneous recovery Stimulus Generalization Stimulus Discrimination second-order conditioning W. W. Norton Basic Principles Acquisition Extinction Spontaneous recovery Stimulus Generalization Stimulus Discrimination second-order conditioning conditioned taste aversion time delay/single exposure Common CC Applications Phobias stimulus overgeneralization fear all insects after being stung Drug addictions stimulus generalization environmental cues Necessary Conditions for CC Contiguity timing of the conditions Cognition prediction Biological constraints rats - taste; birds - sight evolutionary significance associate taste not look of room with poison Anatomy for CC Amygdala If reflexes involved cerebellum Behaviourism Watson observable behaviour mental processes did exist but can’t study them tabula rosa - all knowledge is acquired through sensory experience in the nature-nurture debate, Watson would be on the ________ side Operant Conditioning Behaviour occurs and a consequence follows Operant Conditioning Edward Thorndike “law of effect” learning depends upon the consequences for the animal of its behaviour B. F. Skinner changed Thorndike’s wording from “satisfying state of affairs” and “annoying state of affairs” to “reinforcers” Advantages of Operant Conditioning Permits the organism to adjust its behaviour according to the consequences of that behaviour allows organism to develop new behaviours shaping successive approximations chaining Reinforcers Stimulus following a response that increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated Reinforcers primary reinforcers basic needs such as food and water secondary reinforcers stimulus that act as reinforcers but do not satisfy biological needs established through classical conditioning pieces of paper called money Reinforcement & Punishment Consequences that affect the likelihood that a behaviour will be repeated Reinforcement strengthen the behaviours they follow can be negative or positive Punishment suppress the behaviours they follow can be negative or positive Positive and Negative Reinforcement Increase probability the behaviour will be repeated Positive reinforcement “reward” increases probability behaviour will be repeated by administering a pleasurable stimulus candy Positive and Negative Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement increases probability behaviour will be repeated by removing an aversive stimulus examples: close the door to shut out the noise change the channel to avoid watching an awful program shut off the radio to avoid listening to the premier taking Tylenol for a headache Positive and Negative Punishment Decreases the probability of a behaviour recurring Positive punishment decrease probability of behaviour being repeated by administering an aversive stimuli getting a speeding ticket Negative punishment decrease probability of behaviour being repeated by removing a pleasurable stimulus Positive and Negative Punishment Negative punishment decrease probability of behaviour being repeated by removing a pleasurable stimulus losing driving privileges for speeding Reinforcement VS Punishment Refers to the probability of the behaviour being either repeated (reinforcement) or not repeated (punishment) Positive VS Negative Positive - administering a stimulus a desired stimulus for reinforcement an undesirable stimulus for punishment Negative - removal of a stimulus an aversive stimulus for reinforcement a desirable stimulus for punishment + and - Reinforcement/Punishment Step 1 What is the stimulus/consequence? What is the behaviour? Step 2 Do you see an increase or a decrease in the frequency of the behaviour? If increase, then reinforcement If decrease, then punishment + and - Reinforcement/Punishment Step 3 Is the stimulus (consequence) administered or removed? If administered, then positive If removed, then negative Reinforcer or Punisher? Pay tuition on time so don’t have to pay late charges Stop at a stop sign to avoid getting a ticket lose computer privileges for misusing computer getting a bonus point if participate in psychology study time out for kicking another student Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous reinforcement every occurrence of a particular behaviour is reinforced fast learning fast extinction Partial reinforcement the consequence (reward) delivered intermittently Schedules of Reinforcement Ratio Schedule reinforcement delivered after a number of responses have been made Interval Schedule reinforcement delivered after an interval of time has passed Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Schedule reinforcement delivered after a specific number of responses have been made or after a specific length of time paid a specific amount for each bottle or can factory workers paid by the garment hourly wages Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Schedule Variable Schedule reinforcement delivered after a variable number of responses made or after a variable amount of time has passed VLT machines (variable ratio) random drug testing winning a fight with your boyfriend/girlfriend Variable-ratio schedule Organism cannot predict how many responses are required before reinforcement will occur get high and steady rates of responding very resistant to extinction if behaviour only reinforced some of the time, need to repeat behaviour frequently before able to detect absence of reinforcement Problems with Behaviourism Observational Learning Learning that occurs “when behaviours are acquired or modified following exposure to others performing the behaviour” Studies: Mineka - rhesus monkeys developed phobia of snakes by observing other monkeys Albert Bandura -studies of childhood aggression Vicarious Reinforcement Is the model reinforced for performing the behaviour? Vicarious Learning - learn “about consequences of an action by observing others being rewarded or punished for performing the action” Power of Observational Learning Imitating individuals by wearing items of clothing that are linked to those individuals? Why would someone do that? What reinforcement is there in imitating famous people? Media Violence Yes aggressive behaviour may be learned through observation companies believe ads work/influence our behaviour so why not TV programs/movies? No Media Violence Yes No conveys message okay to use violence if you are right conveys message that violence understandable, if not acceptable, means of handling difficulties Media Violence Yes may convince viewers that violence is more common in real life than it is desensitization No Media Violence Yes No everyone who views violent movies doesn’t go out committing murders/beating everybody up but … increased tendency to act aggressively? Road rage Gambling Gambling Addiction Operant Conditioning Classical Conditioning Observational Learning establish and maintain gambling behaviour maintenance of behaviour watch or gamble with family members Partial variable ratio schedule pleasure associated with winning associated with environmental cues vicarious reinforcement when family members win resistant to extinction environmental cues then elicit response/feelings originally made to winning addiction is growing fastest in age range from 12 to 17 86% of 9 to 14 year olds who gambled regularly reported had gambled with family members Biological Basis Reinforcement has a biological basis primary reinforcers activate dopamine systems dopamine also neurochemical basis of secondary positive reinforcement so sight of your girlfriend, looking at the winning lottery ticket may be conditioned to produce dopamine activation Biological Basis: Dopamine Dopamine released by neurons in the nucleus accumbens damage to nucleus accumbens or pathways loss of motivation loss of feeling of pleasure drugs that block dopamine release disrupts operant conditioning Drug Dependence Physiological dependence psychological dependence operant conditioning positive reinforcement - feel good negative reinforcement - remove feelings of stress, forget their problems Alcoholism Physiological dependence involves GABA, opiates and dopamine receptors Physiological effects impairs (independently of belief): motor processes (________ cortex) information processing (________ cortices) mood (______ cortex and ________ system) • positive mood for moderate • negative mood for larger doses Alcoholism psychological dependence classical conditioning beer/alcohol commercials associate good times, friends etc. with drinking operant conditioning positive reinforcement negative reinforcement - belief (not physiological effect): disinhibition Neuronal Basis for Learning Hebb’s postulate cells that fire together, wire together W. W. Norton (Show Carlson’s animations) The Exam Multiple choice questions 60 questions in total Question order is randomized. Which question you get on the topic is randomized. i.e., function of the different lobes Do not talk to other students in the room. DO NOT WAIT UNTIL THE LAST DAY!
