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AP Review for Unit 6-10 • Review: Watch the video and tell me what was wrong with this research? Research methods http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AmNuVgVmIBs&list=UUhIgRn4J11TZwgAnGpdI19w&ind ex=27 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j04DPW37OKE Standard Deviants Classical Conditioning http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=21YYHS3YUyE&list=UUhIgRn4J11TZwgA nGpdI19w&index=2 rewarded behavior is likely to recur. • Edward Thorndike • One of the 1st to research this kind of learning (operant) Locked cats in a cage • Behavior changes because of its consequences • Rewards strengthen behavior. • If consequences are unpleasant, the Stimulus-Reward connection will weaken. • Called the whole process instrumental learning. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M1fGcSyT5M&list=UUhIgRn4J11TZwgAnGpdI19w&index=3 Standard Deviants Operant Conditioning • A reinforcer is anything the INCREASES a behavior. Positive Reinforcement: • The addition of something pleasant. • Candy for pushing a lever. Negative Reinforcement: • The removal of something unpleasant. • Hitting the alarm snooze. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JA96Fba -WHk Taking aspirin to relieve a headache. Hurrying home in the winter to get out of the cold. 3. Giving in to an argument or to a dog's begging. Fanning oneself to escape the heat. Leaving a movie theater if the movie is bad. Smoking in order to relieve anxiety. Following prison rules in order to be released from confinement. Feigning a stomachache in order to avoid school. 9. Putting on a car safety belt to stop an irritating buzz. Turning down the volume of a very loud radio. Putting up an umbrella to escape the rain. Saying "uncle" to stop being beaten. Continuous Reinforce the behavior EVERYTIME the behavior is exhibited. Usually done when the subject is first learning to make the association. • • • • Partial also called Intermittent Reinforce the behavior only SOME of the times it is exhibited. Acquisition comes more slowly. But is more resistant to extinction. FOUR types of Partial Reinforcement schedules. Continuous reinforcement refers to reinforcement being administered to each instance of a response Partial reinforcement lies between continuous reinforcement and extinction TYPE MEANING OUTCOME Fixed Ratio Reinforcement depends on a definite number of responses Activity slows after reinforcement and then picks up Variable Ratio Number of responses needed for reinforcement varies Greatest activity of all schedules Fixed Interval Reinforcement depends on a fixed time Activity increases as deadline nears Variable Interval Time between reinforcement varies Steady activity results 1. Fixed-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. e.g., piecework pay. 2. Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. This is hard to extinguish because of the unpredictability. (e.g., behaviors like gambling, fishing.) 1. Fixed-interval schedule: Reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. (e.g., preparing for an exam only when the exam draws close.) 2. Variable-interval schedule: Reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals, which produces slow, steady responses. (e.g., pop quiz.) FORM OF REWARD INFLUENCE ON PERFORMANCE Fixed interval Reward on fixed time basis Leads to average and irregular performance Fast extinction of behavior Fixed ratio Reward tied to specific number of responses Leads quickly to very high and stable performance Moderately fast extinction of behavior Variable interval Reward given after varying periods of time Leads to moderately high and stable performance Slow extinction of behavior Variable ratio Reward given for some behaviors Very slow Leads to very high performance extinction of behavior SCHEDULE EFFECTS ON BEHAVIOR Meant to decrease a behavior. Positive Punishment • Addition of something unpleasant. Negative Punishment (Omission Training) • Removal of something pleasant. Punishment works best when it is immediately done after behavior and if it is harsh! • John Watson brought Classical Conditioning to psychology with his Baby Albert experiment. Click to see Baby Albert to some nice jazz. This type of Classical Conditioning is also known as Aversive Conditioning. Contingency theory proposes that for learning to take place, a stimulus must provide the subject information about the likelihood that certain events will occur. Robert Rescorla demonstrated that the pairing of a conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (UCS) does not always produce learning and contended that it is necessary for the CS to signify a contingency. Day 9 - Contingency Theory - A lesson from http://www.youtube.com/watch? the HAT v=lwQXYtM8DTQ This is one of the reasons some people can not lose weight or quit smoking. • Latent learning – learning • • • • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a9UDvH AsddE in the absence of rewards Humans and animals will work in the absence of rewards If one group is given rewards and the other is not, the rewarded group will work harder But…if the non rewarded group is eventually rewarded at a later time, they will work hard because the think a reward might come at a later time. Edward Tolman – Rats and maze example (rats created a cognitive map) Edward Tolman – Rats and maze example (rats created a cognitive map) Cognitive Map: mental picture http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SBTP7W 5c3c8&feature=related Modeling by watching the behavior of a model. For example; if you want to learn a new dance step you watch someone else do it. Albert Bandura and his BoBo Doll We learn through modeling behavior from others. Observational learning + Operant Conditioning Click pic to see some observational learning. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KHi2dxSf9hw • Historically speaking, humans have avoided foods that are sour/bitter from a survival standpoint. • Taste Aversions – an intense dislike or avoidance of food because of its association with an unpleasant or painful stimulus through backward conditioning. Standard Deviants Memory http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zf7zMl630lY&list=UUhIgRn4J11TZwgAnGpdI19w&inde x=19 Three step process…. 1. Encoding: The processing of information into the memory system. 2. Storage: The retention of encoded material over time. 3. Retrieval: The process of getting the information out of memory storage. Atikinson-Shiffrin three-stage model of memory, describes 3 different memory systems characterized by time frames: Stage 1 - Sensory Memory is a brief representation of a stimulus while being processed in the sensory system Stage 2 - Short-Term Memory (STM) is working memory Limited capacity (7 items) Duration is about 30 seconds Stage 3 - Long-Term Memory (LTM) is large capacity and long duration Unlimited storehouse of information. Explicit ( or declarative) memories: our LTM of facts and experiences we consciously know and can verbalize. EG. Sematic (facts and general knowledge)and episodic (birthdays) Implicit ( or non-declarative) memories: our long term memory for skills and procedures to do things by previous experience without that experience being consciously recalled. (Eg. Swimming.) Short Term Memory Activity Retrieval is the process of getting information out of memory storage. Recall you must retrieve the information from your memory fill-in-the blank or essay tests Recognition you must identify the target from possible targets multiple-choice tests A trigger to aid memory, involving prompts such as visual imagery or sounds. Since imagery is at the heart of memory. Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery in aiding memory. 1. Method of Loci 2. Link Method 3. Context Effects Proactive interference: old information interferes with recall of new information Retroactive interference: new information interferes with recall of old information Decay theory: memory trace fades with time Motivated forgetting: involves the loss of painful memories (protective memory loss) Retrieval failure: the information is still within LTM, but cannot be recalled because the retrieval cue is absent In a spoken How many phonemes does platypus have? language, the smallest distinctive sound unit. B, a, and t Chat has three phonemes, ch, a, and t. In a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning. Can be a word or part of a word (prefix or suffix). A system of rules in a language that enables us to communicate and understand others. The set of rules by which we derive meaning in a language. Adding ed at the end of words means past tense. The Chinese languages do not have expansive semantic rules. They usually have totally different symbols for different tenses. The rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences. In English, Is this the White adjectives come House of the House before nouns, but White? not in Spanish!! We acquire language too quickly for it to be learned. We have this “learning box” inside our heads that enable us to learn any human language. Chomsky's View of Language Development http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3gU-B0-DCKI The idea that language determines the way we think (not vive versa). •The Hopi tribe has no past tense in their language, so Whorf says they rarely think of the past. Russian psychologist, contemporary of Piaget but his work not published in English until after his death in 1934 Believed that Piaget ignored the role of culture on cognitive development Cognitive development = active internalization of problem-solving processes as a result of interaction with others Ie, learning is ACTIVE, SOCIAL, and CREATIVE (ASC, sound familiar?) Children learn how to think through their interactions with others Where Piaget saw the child as a scientist, Vygotsky saw the child as an apprentice Vygotsky’s view: “…what a child can do with assistance today she will be able to do by herself tomorrow.” (Vygotsky, 1978) Contrast with Piaget: “Every time we teach a child something, we keep him from inventing it himself. On the other hand, that which we allow him to discover for himself will remain with him visible for the rest of his life.” (Piaget, in Piers, 1972) OBSTACLES TO PROBLEM SOLVING, DECISION-MAKING, AND FORMING JUDGEMENTS Daniel Boone Thinking Cap Confirmation Bias Stress/Tension Some stress helpful, but can Overload. Tendency to search for info That confirms one’s beliefs Functional Fixedness Fixation Mental Set Inability to see problem from a fresh Perspective. Representative Heuristic Judge the liklihood of events based on How well they match a prototype. Availability Heuristic Judge the liklihood of events on how Available the event is in our memory. Influenced by media. Theories of Motivation and Emotion Clips for class motivation http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UP4dEr1wsjM&feature=player_embedded 1. Nature vs. Nurture: How do genetic inheritance (nature) and experience (nurture) influence our development? blog.lib.umn.edu 2. Continuity vs. Discontinuity (Stages) Is development a gradual, continuous process like riding an escalator, or does it proceed through the sequence of separate states like climbing rungs on a ladder? Stability vs. Change: Do our early personality traits persist through life, or do we become different persons as we age? Babinski Reaction- Foot is rubbed against and the rest of the toes fan out. Moro Reflex- Baby feels like it is falling and arms and legs go out in search of something to hang onto. Rooting Reflex- if the baby is touched at the end of the mouth, the baby still turn and begin to suck. Grasping Reflex- Touch a babies hand it will close. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gyVLD0hl0XY Ainsworth had a parent drop off their child with a stranger and then observed how the child reacted. She came up with Three distinctive attachments: 1. Secure Attachment- Just like it sounds the child is secure that mom is coming back and happy to see her when she does. 2. Avoidant Attachment -when mom comes back the child avoids them. 3. Anxious Attachment they are anxious in their surroundings . abc-counselling.com 1. Object Permanence: The understanding that the an object exists even if they can not see it. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nwXd7WyWNHY 2. Egocentric: cannot look at the world through anyone’s eyes but their own. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OinqFgsIbh0 3. Conservation refers to the idea that a quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance and is part of logical thinking. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7gUY8GM7rco http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Piaget's_Stages from appsychology.com Motivated by trying to avoid punishment. Morality based on rewards and punishments. If you are rewarded then it is OK. If you are punished, the act must be wrong. Lauren will give her dad the money because she does not want to be punished. dailycaller.com from appsychology.com Based on wanting to please and being accepted by others. Around teen age: Lauren might give her dad the money because it will improve her relationship with him or she could not give it to him because she wants to gain her moms approval. from appsychology.com Based on self-defined ethical principles or a sense of justice. Your own personal set of ethics. drsusanziebarth.com Lauren would not give her father the money because she would recognize her father’s addiction is destroying her family and wrong for society. from appsychology.com Carol Gilligan pointed out that Kohlberg only tested boys. Boys tend to have more absolute value of morality. Girls tend top look at situational factors. from appsychology.com Can a baby trust the world to fulfill its needs? The trust or mistrust they develop can carry on with the child for the rest of their lives. + Hope, drive stock-images-illustrations.com - Sensory distortion, withdrawal from appsychology.com Toddlers begin to control their bodies (toilet training). Control Temper Tantrums Big word is “NO” Can they learn control or will they doubt themselves? + Will power, self control - Impulsivity, compulsivity from appsychology.com Word turns from “NO” to “WHY?” Want to understand the world and ask questions. Is there curiosity encouraged or scolded? + Purpose, direction -Ruthless, inhibition http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hjA7sSVtTFA from appsychology.com School begins We are for the first time evaluated by a formal system and our peers. Do we feel good or bad about our accomplishments? Can lead to us feeling bad about ourselves for the rest of our lives…inferiority complex. + Competence, initiation -Narrow character, low motivation from appsychology.com In our teenage years we try out different roles. Who am I? What group do I fit in with? If I do not find myself I may develop an identity crisis. + Self certainty, fidelity -Withdrawal, fanaticism http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SR8j_P1O0os&feature=related from appsychology.com Have to balance work and relationships. What are my priorities? bostonist.com realitytvmagazine.sheknows.com from appsychology.com Is everything going as planned? Am I happy with what I created? Mid –life crisis!!! mariansgarden.ca from appsychology.com Look back on life. Was my life meaningful or do I have regret? lolbyte.com bridezilla.com Jung’s Basic Assumptions Less focus on sexuality, more on human history and the supernatural Duality (Dual nature to personality) All people have essentially “two” personalities on a variety of variables (Introversion and Extraversion) Good Evil Yen Yang Collective Unconscious a common reservoir of images derived from our species universal experiences. It explains why, for many people, spiritual concerns are deeply rooted and why people in different cultures share certain myths and images, such as mother as a symbol of nurturance. Jung’s Archetypes Archetypes: archetype as an expression of the Self and considers that by exploring the manifestations of the archetypes one can take the first step on the path towards individuation Best-known archetypes Persona/Shadow, Animus/Anima, Magician, Child-god, Mother, Hero/Demon Jung’s Topographical Model Conscious What we are currently aware of (class, Spring Break) Unconscious Where battles between opposing archetypes take place (memories, understanding of future, and repressed battles; struggle between Persona and Shadow for identity) Collective Unconscious Where archetypes are (Understanding and awareness of Persona and Shadow by all human beings) “Characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling and acting.” Four major perspectives on Personality Psychoanalytic - unconscious motivations Trait - specific dimensions of personality Humanistic - inner capacity for growth Social-Cognitive - influence of environment Id - energy constantly striving to satisfy basic drives Pleasure Principle Ego - seeks to gratify the Id in realistic ways Reality Principle Super Ego - voice of conscience that focuses on how we ought to behave Karen Horney and Alfred Adler agreed with Freud that childhood is important but believed that childhood social not sexual tensions are crucial for personality formation. He really only studied wealthy woman in Austria. His results are not empirically verifiable (really hard to test). No predictive power. Alfred Adler and his ideas of superiority and inferiority. Adler also talked about birth order and how it played a part in personality. Projective tests aim to provide this “psychological x- ray” by asking test takers to describe or tell a story. Henry Murray introduced the TAT test or Thematic Apperception test, in which people view the picture and then make up stories about them. Their answers can give some insight into their latent content. Ask me to read you something…a story.. And you will write your response. The most widely used projective test A set of ten inkblots designed to identify people’s feelings when they are asked to interpret what they see in the inkblots. How can we assess traits? (aim to simplify a person’s behavior patterns) Personality Inventories MMPI • most widely used personality inventory • assess psychological disorders (not normal traits) • empirically derived - test items selected based upon how well they discriminate twixt groups of traits They believe that we can describe people’s personalities by specifying their main characteristics (traits). Traits like honestly, laziness, ambition, outgoing are thought to be stable over the course of your lives.