Download AP Review #2

AP Review for Unit 6-10
• Review: Watch the video and tell me what
was wrong with this research?
Research methods
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AmNuVgVmIBs&list=UUhIgRn4J11TZwgAnGpdI19w&ind
ex=27
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j04DPW37OKE
Standard Deviants Classical Conditioning
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=21YYHS3YUyE&list=UUhIgRn4J11TZwgA
nGpdI19w&index=2
rewarded behavior is likely to recur.
• Edward Thorndike
• One of the 1st to research this
kind of learning (operant)
Locked cats in a cage
• Behavior changes because of its
consequences
• Rewards strengthen behavior.
• If consequences are unpleasant,
the Stimulus-Reward
connection will weaken.
• Called the whole process
instrumental
learning.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M1fGcSyT5M&list=UUhIgRn4J11TZwgAnGpdI19w&index=3

Standard Deviants Operant Conditioning
• A reinforcer is anything the INCREASES a behavior.
Positive Reinforcement:
• The addition of something pleasant.
• Candy for pushing a lever.
Negative Reinforcement:
• The removal of something unpleasant.
• Hitting the alarm snooze.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JA96Fba
-WHk
 Taking aspirin to relieve a headache.
 Hurrying home in the winter to get out of the cold. 3. Giving in








to an argument or to a dog's begging.
Fanning oneself to escape the heat.
Leaving a movie theater if the movie is bad.
Smoking in order to relieve anxiety.
Following prison rules in order to be released from
confinement.
Feigning a stomachache in order to avoid school. 9. Putting on
a car safety belt to stop an irritating buzz.
Turning down the volume of a very loud radio.
Putting up an umbrella to escape the rain.
Saying "uncle" to stop being beaten.
Continuous
 Reinforce the behavior
EVERYTIME the behavior
is exhibited. Usually done
when the subject is first
learning to make the
association.
•
•
•
•
Partial also called
Intermittent
Reinforce the behavior
only SOME of the
times it is exhibited.
Acquisition comes
more slowly.
But is more resistant
to extinction.
FOUR types of Partial
Reinforcement
schedules.
 Continuous
reinforcement refers to
reinforcement being
administered to each
instance of a response
 Partial reinforcement
lies between
continuous
reinforcement and
extinction
TYPE
MEANING
OUTCOME
Fixed
Ratio
Reinforcement depends on
a definite number of
responses
Activity slows after
reinforcement and
then picks up
Variable
Ratio
Number of responses
needed for reinforcement
varies
Greatest activity of
all schedules
Fixed
Interval
Reinforcement depends on
a fixed time
Activity increases as
deadline nears
Variable
Interval
Time between
reinforcement varies
Steady activity
results
1. Fixed-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response
only after a specified number of responses.
e.g., piecework pay.
2. Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response
after an unpredictable number of responses.
This is hard to extinguish because of the
unpredictability. (e.g., behaviors like
gambling, fishing.)
1. Fixed-interval schedule: Reinforces a response
only after a specified time has elapsed. (e.g.,
preparing for an exam only when the exam
draws close.)
2. Variable-interval schedule: Reinforces a response
at unpredictable time intervals, which produces
slow, steady responses. (e.g., pop quiz.)
FORM OF
REWARD
INFLUENCE ON
PERFORMANCE
Fixed interval
Reward on fixed
time basis
Leads to average
and irregular
performance
Fast extinction of
behavior
Fixed ratio
Reward tied to
specific number
of responses
Leads quickly to
very high and
stable
performance
Moderately fast
extinction of
behavior
Variable interval
Reward given
after varying
periods of time
Leads to
moderately high
and stable
performance
Slow extinction of
behavior
Variable ratio
Reward given for
some behaviors
Very slow
Leads to very
high performance extinction of
behavior
SCHEDULE
EFFECTS ON
BEHAVIOR
Meant to decrease a behavior.
Positive Punishment
• Addition of something
unpleasant.
Negative Punishment (Omission
Training)
• Removal of something pleasant.
Punishment works best when it
is immediately done after
behavior and if it is harsh!
• John Watson brought Classical Conditioning to
psychology with his Baby
Albert experiment.
Click to
see Baby
Albert to
some nice
jazz.
This type of Classical Conditioning is also known as Aversive Conditioning.
 Contingency theory proposes that for learning to take place, a stimulus must
provide the subject information about the likelihood that certain events will
occur. Robert Rescorla demonstrated that the pairing of a conditioned stimulus (CS)
and unconditioned stimulus (UCS) does not always produce learning and contended
that it is necessary for the CS to signify a contingency.
Day 9 - Contingency Theory - A lesson from
http://www.youtube.com/watch?
the HAT
v=lwQXYtM8DTQ
This is one of the reasons some people can not lose weight or quit smoking.
• Latent learning – learning
•
•
•
•
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a9UDvH
AsddE
in the absence of rewards
Humans and animals will
work in the absence of
rewards
If one group is given
rewards and the other is not,
the rewarded group will
work harder
But…if the non rewarded
group is eventually
rewarded at a later time,
they will work hard because
the think a reward might
come at a later time.
Edward Tolman – Rats and
maze example (rats created
a cognitive map)
 Edward Tolman – Rats
and maze example (rats
created a cognitive map)
 Cognitive Map: mental
picture
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SBTP7W
5c3c8&feature=related
 Modeling by watching
the behavior of a model.
For example; if you want
to learn a new dance
step you watch someone
else do it.
 Albert Bandura and
his BoBo Doll
 We learn through
modeling behavior from
others.
 Observational learning
+ Operant Conditioning
Click pic to see some observational learning.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KHi2dxSf9hw
• Historically speaking,
humans have avoided foods
that are sour/bitter from a
survival standpoint.
• Taste Aversions – an
intense dislike or avoidance
of food because of its
association with an
unpleasant or painful
stimulus through backward
conditioning.
 Standard Deviants Memory
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zf7zMl630lY&list=UUhIgRn4J11TZwgAnGpdI19w&inde
x=19
Three step process….
1.
Encoding: The processing of information into the
memory system.
2.
Storage: The retention of encoded material over time.
3.
Retrieval: The process of getting the information out of
memory storage.
Atikinson-Shiffrin three-stage model of memory, describes 3 different
memory systems characterized by time frames:
 Stage 1 - Sensory Memory is a brief representation of a
stimulus while being processed in the sensory system
 Stage 2 - Short-Term Memory (STM) is working
memory
 Limited capacity (7 items)
 Duration is about 30 seconds
 Stage 3 - Long-Term Memory (LTM) is large capacity
and long duration
 Unlimited storehouse of information.
 Explicit ( or declarative) memories:
our LTM of facts and experiences we
consciously know and can verbalize.
EG. Sematic (facts and general
knowledge)and episodic (birthdays)
 Implicit ( or non-declarative)
memories: our long term memory for
skills and procedures to do things by
previous experience without that
experience being consciously
recalled. (Eg. Swimming.)
Short Term Memory Activity

Retrieval is the process of getting information out of memory storage.
Recall
 you must retrieve the
information from your
memory
 fill-in-the blank or
essay tests
Recognition
 you must identify the
target from possible
targets
 multiple-choice tests
A trigger to aid memory, involving prompts
such as visual imagery or sounds.
Since imagery is at the heart of memory.
Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery in
aiding memory.
1. Method of Loci
2. Link Method
3. Context Effects
 Proactive interference: old information
interferes with recall of new information
 Retroactive interference: new information
interferes with recall of old information
 Decay theory: memory trace fades with time
 Motivated forgetting: involves the loss of
painful memories (protective memory loss)
 Retrieval failure: the information is still
within LTM, but cannot be recalled because the
retrieval cue is absent
 In a spoken
How many phonemes
does platypus have?
language, the
smallest
distinctive sound
unit.
 B, a, and t
 Chat has three
phonemes, ch, a,
and t.
 In a language, the
smallest unit that
carries meaning.
 Can be a word or
part of a word
(prefix or suffix).
 A system of
rules in a
language that
enables us to
communicate
and understand
others.
 The set of rules
by which we
derive meaning in
a language.
 Adding ed at the
end of words
means past tense.
The Chinese languages
do not have expansive
semantic rules. They
usually have totally
different symbols for
different tenses.
 The rules for
combining words
into grammatically
sensible
sentences.
 In English,
Is this the White
adjectives come
House
of
the
House
before nouns, but
White?
not in Spanish!!
 We acquire language too
quickly for it to be
learned.
 We have this “learning
box” inside our heads
that enable us to learn
any human language.
Chomsky's View of Language Development
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3gU-B0-DCKI
 The idea that language
determines the way we
think (not vive versa).
•The Hopi tribe has
no past tense in
their language, so
Whorf says they
rarely think of the
past.
 Russian psychologist,
contemporary of Piaget
but his work not
published in English
until after his death in
1934
 Believed that Piaget
ignored the role of
culture on cognitive
development
 Cognitive development = active internalization of
problem-solving processes as a result of
interaction with others
 Ie, learning is ACTIVE, SOCIAL, and CREATIVE (ASC,
sound familiar?)
 Children learn how to think through their
interactions with others
 Where Piaget saw the child as a scientist, Vygotsky
saw the child as an apprentice
 Vygotsky’s view:
“…what a child can do with assistance today she will be
able to do by herself tomorrow.” (Vygotsky, 1978)
 Contrast with Piaget:
“Every time we teach a child something, we keep him from
inventing it himself. On the other hand, that which we
allow him to discover for himself will remain with him
visible for the rest of his life.” (Piaget, in Piers, 1972)
OBSTACLES TO PROBLEM SOLVING, DECISION-MAKING,
AND FORMING JUDGEMENTS
Daniel Boone
Thinking Cap
Confirmation Bias
Stress/Tension
Some stress helpful, but can
Overload.
Tendency to search for info
That confirms one’s beliefs
Functional
Fixedness
Fixation
Mental Set
Inability to see problem from a fresh
Perspective.
Representative
Heuristic
Judge the liklihood of events based on
How well they match a prototype.
Availability
Heuristic
Judge the liklihood of events on how
Available the event is in our memory.
Influenced by media.
Theories of Motivation and Emotion
Clips for class motivation
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UP4dEr1wsjM&feature=player_embedded
1. Nature vs. Nurture: How do genetic inheritance (nature)
and experience (nurture) influence our development?
blog.lib.umn.edu
2. Continuity vs. Discontinuity (Stages) Is development
a gradual, continuous process like riding an escalator, or
does it proceed through the sequence of separate states
like climbing rungs on a ladder?
Stability vs. Change: Do our early personality
traits persist through life, or do we become
different persons as we age?
Babinski Reaction- Foot is
rubbed against and the rest
of the toes fan out.
Moro Reflex- Baby feels like
it is falling and arms and legs
go out in search of something
to hang onto.
Rooting Reflex- if the baby is
touched at the end of the
mouth, the baby still turn and
begin to suck.
Grasping Reflex- Touch a
babies hand it will close.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gyVLD0hl0XY
Ainsworth had a parent drop off their child with a stranger and then
observed how the child reacted. She came up with Three distinctive
attachments:
1. Secure Attachment- Just like
it sounds the child is secure
that mom is coming back and
happy to see her when she
does.
2. Avoidant Attachment -when
mom comes back the child
avoids them.
3. Anxious Attachment they are
anxious in their surroundings
.
abc-counselling.com
 1. Object Permanence: The understanding that the an
object exists even if they can not see it.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nwXd7WyWNHY
 2. Egocentric: cannot look at the world through
anyone’s eyes but their own.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OinqFgsIbh0
3. Conservation refers to the idea that a quantity
remains the same despite changes in appearance and
is part of logical thinking.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7gUY8GM7rco
http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Piaget's_Stages
from appsychology.com
Motivated by trying to
avoid punishment.
Morality based on
rewards and
punishments.
If you are rewarded
then it is OK.
If you are punished,
the act must be wrong.
Lauren will give her dad the money
because she does not want to be
punished.
dailycaller.com
from appsychology.com
Based on
wanting to
please and
being accepted
by others.
Around teen age: Lauren might give her
dad the money because it will improve
her relationship with him or she could
not give it to him because she wants to
gain her moms approval.
from appsychology.com
 Based on self-defined
ethical principles or a
sense of justice.
 Your own personal set
of ethics.
drsusanziebarth.com
Lauren would not give her father the money
because she would recognize her father’s
addiction is destroying her family and
wrong for society.
from appsychology.com
Carol Gilligan pointed out that Kohlberg
only tested boys.
Boys tend to have more absolute value of
morality.
Girls tend top look at situational factors.
from appsychology.com
Can a baby trust the
world to fulfill its
needs?
The trust or
mistrust they
develop can carry on
with the child for
the rest of their
lives.
+ Hope, drive
stock-images-illustrations.com
- Sensory distortion,
withdrawal
from appsychology.com
Toddlers begin to control
their bodies (toilet
training).
Control Temper Tantrums
Big word is “NO”
Can they learn control or
will they doubt
themselves?
+ Will power, self control
- Impulsivity, compulsivity
from appsychology.com
Word turns from “NO” to “WHY?”
Want to understand the world and ask questions.
Is there curiosity encouraged or scolded?
+ Purpose,
direction
-Ruthless,
inhibition
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hjA7sSVtTFA
from appsychology.com
School begins
We are for the first time evaluated by a
formal system and our peers.
Do we feel good or bad about our
accomplishments?
Can lead to us feeling bad about
ourselves for the rest of our
lives…inferiority complex.
+ Competence,
initiation
-Narrow character, low
motivation
from appsychology.com
In our teenage years we try out different roles.
Who am I?
What group do I fit in with?
If I do not find myself I may develop an identity crisis.
+ Self
certainty,
fidelity
-Withdrawal,
fanaticism
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SR8j_P1O0os&feature=related
from appsychology.com
Have to balance work and
relationships.
What are my priorities?
bostonist.com
realitytvmagazine.sheknows.com
from appsychology.com
Is everything going as
planned?
Am I happy with what I
created?
Mid –life crisis!!!
mariansgarden.ca
from appsychology.com
Look back on life.
Was my life meaningful or do
I have regret?
lolbyte.com
bridezilla.com
Jung’s Basic Assumptions

Less focus on sexuality, more on human history
and the supernatural

Duality (Dual nature to personality)


All people have essentially “two” personalities on a variety of variables
(Introversion and Extraversion) Good Evil Yen Yang
Collective Unconscious a common reservoir of
images derived from our species universal
experiences. It explains why, for many people,
spiritual concerns are deeply rooted and why
people in different cultures share certain
myths and images, such as mother as a symbol
of nurturance.
Jung’s Archetypes

Archetypes: archetype as an expression of the Self
and considers that by exploring the manifestations
of the archetypes one can take the first step on the
path towards individuation

Best-known archetypes

Persona/Shadow, Animus/Anima, Magician, Child-god, Mother,
Hero/Demon
Jung’s Topographical Model

Conscious  What we are currently aware of
(class, Spring Break)

Unconscious  Where battles between opposing
archetypes take place (memories, understanding of
future, and repressed battles; struggle between
Persona and Shadow for identity)

Collective Unconscious  Where archetypes are
(Understanding and awareness of Persona and
Shadow by all human beings)
“Characteristic pattern of thinking,
feeling and acting.”
Four major perspectives on Personality
Psychoanalytic - unconscious motivations
Trait - specific dimensions of personality
Humanistic - inner capacity for growth
Social-Cognitive - influence of environment
Id - energy
constantly striving to satisfy basic drives
Pleasure Principle
Ego
- seeks to gratify the Id in realistic ways
Reality Principle
Super Ego
- voice of conscience
that focuses on how
we ought to behave
 Karen Horney and Alfred Adler
agreed with Freud that childhood is
important but believed that
childhood social not sexual tensions
are crucial for personality formation.
 He really only studied wealthy
woman in Austria.
 His results are not empirically
verifiable (really hard to test).
 No predictive power.
 Alfred Adler and his ideas of
superiority and inferiority.
 Adler also talked about birth
order and how it played a
part in personality.
 Projective tests aim to provide this “psychological x-
ray” by asking test takers to describe or tell a story.
Henry Murray introduced the TAT test or Thematic
Apperception test, in which people view the picture
and then make up stories about them.
 Their answers can give some insight into their latent
content.
Ask me to read you something…a story.. And you will write your
response.
 The most widely used projective test
 A set of ten inkblots designed to identify
people’s feelings when they are asked to
interpret what they see in the inkblots.
How can we assess traits?
(aim to simplify a person’s behavior patterns)
Personality Inventories
MMPI
• most widely used personality inventory
• assess psychological disorders (not normal traits)
• empirically derived - test items selected based
upon how well they discriminate twixt groups
of traits
 They believe that we
can describe people’s
personalities by
specifying their main
characteristics (traits).
 Traits like honestly,
laziness, ambition,
outgoing are thought to
be stable over the
course of your lives.