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THE VISUAL GUIDES Understanding The Human Body Extrait de la publication QA INTERNATIONAL The human body Extrait de la publication Publisher Jacques Fortin Editorial Director François Fortin Executive Directors Stéphane Batigne Serge D’Amico Illustrations Editor Marc Lalumière Art Director Rielle Lévesque Graphic Designer Anne Tremblay Writers Computer Graphic Artists Reviewers Stéphane Batigne Josée Bourbonnière Nathalie Fredette Jean-Yves Ahern Pierre Beauchemin Maxime Bigras Yan Bohler Mélanie Boivin Jocelyn Gardner Danièle Lemay Alain Lemire Raymond Martin Annie Maurice Anouk Noël Carl Pelletier Simon Pelletier Claude Thivierge Michel Rouleau Frédérick Simard Dr Alain Beaudet Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery McGill University Dr Amanda Black Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Queen’s University Dr Richard Cloutier Département de dermatologie Centre hospitalier universitaire de Québec Dr Luisa Deutsch KGK Synergize Dr René Dinh Dr Annie Goyette Département d’ophtalmologie Centre hospitalier universitaire de Québec Dr Pierre Duguay Dr Vincent Gracco School of Communication Sciences and Disorders Faculty of Medicine McGill University Dr Pierre Guy Orthopedic Trauma Service McGill University Health Centre Dr Michael Hawke Department of Otolaryngology Faculty of Medicine University of Toronto Page Layout Véronique Boisvert Geneviève Théroux Béliveau Dr Patrice Hugo Dr Ann-Muriel Steff Researchers Kathleen Wynd Jessie Daigle Anne-Marie Villeneuve Dr Roman Jednak Copy Editor Jane Broderick Translation Käthe Roth Production Mac Thien Nguyen Hoang Prepress Kien Tang Karine Lévesque Procrea BioSciences Inc. Division of Urology The Montreal Children’s Hospital Dr Michael S. Kramer Departments of Pediatrics and of Epidemiology and Biostatistics Faculty of Medicine McGill University Dr Pierre Lachapelle Department of Ophthalmology McGill University Dr Denis Laflamme Dr Maria Do Carmo MD Multimedia Inc. Dr Claude Lamarche Faculté de médecine dentaire Université de Montréal Dr Sheldon Magder Faculty of Medicine McGill University The human body was created and produced by QA International 329, rue de la Commune Ouest, 3e étage Montréal (Québec) H2Y 2E1 Canada T 514.499.3000 F 514.499.3010 ©2007 QA International. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the Publisher. ISBN 978-2-7644-0892-6 Printed and bound in Slovakia. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 04 03 02 01 www.qa-international.com Dr Nelson Nadeau Dr Louis Z. G. Touyz Faculty of Dentistry McGill University Dr Teresa Trippenbach Department of Physiology McGill University Dr Martine Turcotte Dr Michael Wiseman Faculty of Dentistry McGill University The human body QA INTERNATIONAL Extrait de la publication Table of 41 40 38 36 34 32 30 28 27 26 24 22 20 18 6 | The body’s building blocks 8 10 12 14 The human cell Chromosomes and DNA Cellular activity Body tissues The movements of the hand The action of the skeletal muscles The muscles of the head Muscle tissue The skeletal muscles The joints The hand and the foot The spine The head Types of bones The human skeleton Bone growth Bone structure The skin 16 | The architecture of the body 42 | The nervous system 44 46 48 50 52 54 4 72 70 68 67 66 64 62 60 58 Neurons The central nervous system The brain The cerebrum The peripheral nervous system The motor functions of the nervous system Smell Taste receptors Taste Balance Perception of sound The organ of hearing Sight The eye Touch 56 | The five senses contents 110 The liver, pancreas, and gallbladder 109 The intestines 108 The stomach 106 The teeth 104 The digestive system 102 Speech 100 Respiration 98 The respiratory system 74 | Blood circulation 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 Blood The cardiovascular system Arteries and veins The heart The cardiac cycle The lymphatic system Immunity The endocrine system The hypothalamus and the pituitary gland 94 The urinary system 96 |Respiration and nutrition 112 | Reproduction 114 116 118 120 122 Extrait de la publication The male genital organs The female genital organs Fertilization The life of the embryo Maternity 124 | Glossary 126 | Index 5 What is the human body made of? Although our bodies are very complex, they are composed of fundamental units that are very similar to each other. These microscopic basic components are assembled to form the different tissues that form all the body’s organs. Cells are also the sites of intense and constant activity: they manufacture living matter, consume energy, and continually reproduce themselves. Extrait de la publication The body’s building blocks 8 The human cell The body’s basic component 10 Chromosomes and DNA The code of life deep within cells 12 Cellular activity Cell division and protein synthesis 14 Body tissues Groupings of cells Extrait de la publication The human cell The body’s building blocks The body’s basic component The human body contains about 60 billion human cells. These cells, the basic components of the human body, are invisible to the naked eye, as their diameter generally is less than a few hundredths of a millimeter. Although they take many forms, depending on their location and their function, they always have a welldefined structure: an exterior membrane, a nucleus, and a number of internal elements floating in a gelatinous medium, the cytoplasm. DIFFERENT TYPES OF CELLS The human body contains a great many types of cells, which are differentiated according to their function. Despite their different sizes and shapes, all have the same general structure. Cytoplasm, which fills the intracellular space, is a jellylike substance composed of water, proteins, lipids, ions, and glucose. The rods of the retina contain light-sensitive pigments. Lysosomes contain enzymes that perform intracellular digestion. The nucleus of the neutrophil has several lobes. Microtubules, which form the skeleton of the cell, make it easier for organelles to move within the cytoplasm. Erythrocytes (red blood cells) color the blood red. Made mainly of lipid molecules, the cell membrane forms a selective water-insoluble barrier. The ovum is the largest cell in the human body. Spermatozoids have a long flagellum. Enveloped in a double membrane, mitochondria produce and store energy. Enzymes enclosed in peroxisomes perform oxidization. Neurons (neural cells) can be up to 1 meter in length. The irregular shape of osteocytes (bone cells) enables them to lodge in very narrow cavities of bony tissue. 8 Cilia, formed of a group of microtubules covered by the cellular membrane, can propel the cell or move a substance outside the cell. Large cilia are called flagella. Extrait de la publication THE STRUCTURE OF HUMAN CELLS The body’s building blocks Human cells (like those of all higher orders of life) are called eukaryotes – that is, their genetic material is enclosed in a nucleus defined by a nuclear membrane. The rest of the cell is composed of cytoplasm, a semiliquid medium structured by a network of microtubules and microfilaments. The organelles that float in the cytoplasm (mitochondrion, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, lysosome) perform different cellular functions, such as storing energy, synthesis and transportation of proteins, and digestion of foreign bodies. Chromatin, the main component of the nucleus, is a filament formed of DNA and proteins. The nuclear membrane has a large number of pores. Ribosomes are made in the nucleolus, in the center of the nucleus. free ribosome The endoplasmic reticulum (ER), located near the nucleus, consists of a network of membranous pockets and canals. The rough ER is covered with ribosomes that synthesize proteins, while the smooth ER does not have ribosomes and produces other types of substances. The Golgi apparatus resembles a series of membranous sacs attached to the rough ER. It collects the proteins synthesized by the ribosomes, sometimes changes them by adding carbohydrates, then releases them into vacuoles. Microfilaments are made of a protein, actin. With the microtubules, they form the cytoskeleton, which gives the cell its shape. Vacuoles, small liquid-filled vesicles, move from the Golgi apparatus to the cellular membrane, where they release the proteins that they contain. TRANSPORT OF PROTEINS IN THE CELL Each cell has two centrioles, formed of bundles of microtubules placed at a right angle to each other. They play a role in cell division. Protein synthesis, one of the main functions of the cells, is performed in small particles called ribosomes. There are two types of ribosomes: free ribosomes, which secrete their products directly into the cytoplasm, and ribosomes attached to the endoplasmic reticulum, which release their proteins outside the cell. Proteins move through the network of membranous sacs in the endoplasmic reticulum, are processed by the Golgi apparatus, and then migrate toward the cellular membrane inside a vacuole. Extrait de la publication 9 Chromosomes and DNA The body’s building blocks The code of life deep within cells Each cell in our body has a nucleus. Although nuclei are only a few microns in diameter, they are the site of fundamental mechanisms, such as cell division and protein synthesis. The substance responsible for these phenomena, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), is in the form of very long helicoidal molecules in constant motion. During the process of cell division, these filaments twist around on themselves to form chromosomes. DNA molecules are unique in that they are formed of two strands linked by several billion successive bonds. The sequence of these components constitutes a code that is capable of commanding the production of a large number of specific proteins and also replicating itself. nucleolus The nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a porous nuclear membrane. sister chromatids centromere The chromosomes float in a gelatinous substance, the nucleoplasm. Human cells have 46 chromosomes, except for sexual cells, which have only half this number. Chromosomes cannot be observed except during cell division. At that time, they divide into two sister chromatids that remain attached to each other for a short time by a central zone, the centromere. INSIDE THE NUCLEUS With the exception of red blood cells, all cells in the body contain a nucleus. Some, like the muscle cells, even have several. The nucleus of a cell contains one or several nucleoli and filaments of chromatin floating in the nucleoplasm. Chromatin, which generally looks like a string of beads, is composed of long DNA molecules wound around proteins called histones. When cells divide, this filament rolls up into a spiral, becomes condensed, and is organized to form characteristic small rods, the chromosomes. 10 THE MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF DNA The nucleotide is the basic component of the DNA molecule. It is composed of a phosphate group and a sugar, deoxyribose, to which one of the four bases attaches. The body’s building blocks DNA is a polymer – that is, its molecule is formed by the grouping together of a large number of simpler molecules. It can be visualized as a very long, twisted ladder whose two uprights are linked by billions of rungs, each of which is composed of two smaller molecules, nitrogenous bases. There are only four different nitrogenous bases in DNA: adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine. These molecules are linked up not at random but according to a strict rule resulting from their molecular structure: adenine can link only with thymine, and cytosine only with guanine. These bases are called complementary. Adenine can link up only with thymine. deoxyribose phosphate group thymine The nitrogenous base, linked to deoxyribose, links up with its complementary base to form a rung in the DNA molecule. guanine Cytosine is the complementary base for guanine. chromatin Each chromosome has a single DNA molecule, 2 millionths of a millimeter wide but several centimeters long. THE GENETIC HERITAGE AND HEREDITY All of the cells in an individual’s body have resulted from the division of a single initial cell, and so they all contain absolutely identical DNA filaments. The sequence of nitrogenous bases is always different from one human being to another; the DNA composition of each human being is therefore unique. When the DNA molecule wraps around eight histone molecules, it forms a mass, the nucleosome, which supports it. Much of our genetic heritage is linked to our belonging to the human race: all humans, for instance, have the same organs. However, other, more specific, genetic characteristics (physical features, predisposition to certain diseases) are transmitted from one generation to the next at the time the sexual cells merge. This mode of transmission is called heredity. 11 Cellular activity The body’s building blocks Cell division and protein synthesis Like more complex living organisms, the cells in our bodies are born and die. Different cells have very different life spans: a few hours for white blood cells, four months for red blood cells. When they die, most cells are replaced by identical cells. Their life can thus be described as a cycle during which they prepare for and complete their reproduction by cellular division. phase M phase G2 phase S The cell cycle comprises four successive stages: the three phases of the interphase (phases G1, S, and G2) and phase M. Phases G1 and G2 are phases of growth and intense metabolic activity. G1 is the longest and most variable phase (from 10 hours to several months, depending on the cell; even an entire life for neurons). Phase G2 lasts one to two hours. Phase S, which can last from four to eight hours, is the period during which replication of DNA takes place. Phase M corresponds to cell division itself and lasts only a few minutes. phase G1 REPLICATION OF DNA nucleotide DNA molecule matrix An essential step in cell division consists of copying the cell’s genetic material, its DNA. To do this, the two strands of the double helix separate and become matrices for the synthesis of two new strands according to the principle of base pairing. When the DNA molecule has completely replicated, the cell has two absolutely identical molecules. newly synthesized strand cytoplasm chromosome Q pair of centrioles nucleus CELL DIVISION W Cell division, or mitosis, comprises several distinct steps. The DNA molecules, deployed as chromatin during the interphase, coil and thicken during the prophase Q, which makes the chromosomes visible. The nucleolus disappears and the two pairs of centrioles move apart and migrate to opposite ends of the cell, while a system of microfilaments, the mitotic spindle, forms between these two poles. Gradually, the nuclear membrane disintegrates and the chromosomes move along the filaments of the mitotic spindle. During the metaphase W, the chromosomes line up at the center of the cell. When their centromeres divide, the anaphase begins E: the chromatids, which have become complete chromosomes, are drawn to one or the other end of the cell. In the telophase R a new nucleus forms at each end of the cell. The chromosomes uncoil to become chromatin once more, while a new nuclear membrane is formed. The mitotic spindle disappears and the cytoplasm begins to separate during a phase called cytocinesis T. At the end of the process, the original cell is replaced by two new identical cells Y. 12 Extrait de la publication mitotic spindle E R new nucleus T Y SYNTHESIS OF PROTEINS Proteins are large molecules formed by the grouping together of several amino acids. Some proteins play specific roles in the body’s functioning (hormones, antibodies, enzymes), while others constitute its living material. The synthesis of proteins, which is one of the cell’s main functions, is performed according to instructions coded in genes, segments of various lengths of the DNA molecule. Each gene is distinguished by a particular sequence of nitrogenous bases. The synthesis of a protein consists of transcribing this sequence onto a messenger molecule, then translating it into the sequence of amino acids that form the protein. The bases of the messenger RNA molecule are complementary to those of the gene that produces it. nucleotide The messenger RNA molecule is composed of the same bases as DNA, except that uracil replaces thymine. DNA molecule W 0 E 0 Q 0 pore codon matrix ribosome R 0 nuclear membrane T 0 amino acid Y 0 TRANSCRIPTION AND TRANSLATION The first phase in the process of synthesis of proteins, transcription, takes place in the cell nucleus. When a gene is activated, its two strands separate, and one of them serves as the matrix Q for a molecule of messenger ribonucleic acid (RNA-m) W. Once formed, this molecule leaves the nucleus through one of its pores E and attaches itself to a ribosome R, where it is translated. Translation consists of converting the molecule of RNA-m into a sequence of amino acids. The bases of the RNA-m are processed not one by one, but in groups of three, called codons T, which serve as matrices for specific amino acids. As the codons are processed, the amino acids Y are assembled in the order defined by the sequences of the gene’s bases. When the RNA-m molecule has been completely translated, the sequence of amino acids forms a protein U. Extrait de la publication RNA-m U 0 protein 13 Body tissues The body’s building blocks Groupings of cells In the human body, cells do not function separately. They are grouped together in different tissues that compose the organism’s organs. There are four types of tissues in the human body: epithelial tissues, which form the covering of many parts of the body; connective tissues, which play a support role; muscle tissues; and nerve tissues. Aside from cells, the tissues contain extracellular liquid, in which substances needed by the body to function (such as hormones, proteins, and vitamins) circulate and dissolve. microvilli basement membrane nucleus of an epithelial cell EPITHELIAL TISSUE The epithelium (or epithelial tissue) covers most of the internal and external surfaces of the body, including skin, mucus, blood vessels, glands, and cavities of the digestive system. The epithelial cells are cubical, columnar, or squamous (flat) and are tightly packed against each other to form coverings that can include one or more layers. They sit on a basement membrane that connects them to the underlying vascularized tissues. On the outside of the body they are impermeable, but on the inside they play a role of absorption and secretion within the organism, due to the microvilli that cover certain epithelial cells. CONNECTIVE TISSUE Unlike the epithelium, connective tissue has relatively few cells, floating in a very abundant intercellular matrix composed mainly of fibers and a semi-liquid substance. Connective-tissue cells fall into two primary categories: fibroblasts and macrophages. The intercellular matrix of connective tissue involves mainly three types of fibers formed of proteins: collagen fibers, elastic fibers, and reticular fibers. The density and positioning of these fibers, as well as the presence of other, more specific cells, gives connective tissue very different aspects. Cartilage, bone tissue, blood, and most of the tissues that make up the organs are connective tissues. Reticular fibers form solid branched networks. Elastic fibers are able to return to their original length after being stretched. Collagen fibers, made of bundles of fibrils, are very strong. They make the matrix flexible and rubbery. Macrophages destroy undesirable elements (foreign bodies, debris, dead cells). Fibroblasts make tissue fibers. 14 Extrait de la publication Muscle cells are called fibers, but they should not be confused with the protein fibers present in connective tissue. The tissues that form muscles are distinct because of the way their cells are bundled. There are three types of muscle tissue: skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth visceral muscle. Skeletal muscle tissue is formed of very elongated multinuclear fibers. These cells look striated due to the alternation of the two types of filaments that compose them. cell nucleus The body’s building blocks MUSCLE TISSUE The fibers of cardiac muscle tissue are also striated, but they are differently organized, with numerous, tight ramifications. Smooth muscle tissue includes shorter, spindle-shaped cells. These fibers have only one nucleus and are not striated. NERVE TISSUE The brain, the spinal cord, and nerves are formed of nerve tissue, which consists of a dense tangle of cells. There are two categories of cells in nerve tissue: neurons, which are the true nervous cells, and glial cells (astrocytes, oligodentrocytes, microgliocytes, Schwann cells, etc.). Glial cells are ten times more numerous and generally smaller than neurons. They do not play a direct role in nerve functions but support, protect, and nourish the neurons. They are also capable of dividing by mitosis, which neurons cannot do. Neurons are highly specialized cells that transport and transmit nerve impulses by establishing innumerable connections between each other. Tiny microgliocytes rid nerve tissue of foreign bodies and dead cells. neuron The axon is the main extension of the neuron. Oligodendrocytes are the most common glial cells. They have extensions that coil around the axons of the neurons of the central nervous system. The many extensions of the astrocytes finish in “feet” that form barriers, called hemato-encephalic barriers, between the neurons and blood capillaries. Extrait de la publication 15 From the phalanges to the bones of the skull, the 206 bones that make up the human skeleton play an essential supportive and protective role. But the architecture of the human body is not determined solely by its skeleton: our organism also has more than 600 muscles with which we control our limbs and move around. This strong, efficient basic structure could not function without the protective envelope that covers it. The skin, with 1.5 m2 of total surface area, is the largest organ of the human body. Extrait de la publication The architecture of the body 18 The skin The body’s protective envelope 20 Bone structure Flexible yet strong tissues 22 Bone growth From cartilage to bone tissue 24 The human skeleton The bony structure of the body 26 Types of bones Form determined by function 27 The head A grouping of flat and irregular bones 28 The spine The central axis of the body 30 The hand and the foot The extremities of the limbs 32 The joints The junctions between the bones 34 The skeletal muscles Motion generators 36 Muscle tissue Bundles of contractile cells 38 The muscles of the head An infinite variety of movements 40 The action of the skeletal muscles From contraction to movement 41 The movements of the hand Incredible dexterity Extrait de la publication The skin The architecture of the body The body’s protective envelope We may not think of it this way, but the skin is the largest organ in the human body: an adult’s skin covers an area of 1.75 m2 and represents 7% of total body mass. This envelope is composed of a superficial layer, the epidermis, and a deeper layer, the dermis. With the different types of cells that it contains (keratinocytes, melanocytes, sensory receptors), the skin fulfills a number of important functions that protect us against the external environment. THE LAYERS OF THE EPIDERMIS The epidermis is an epithelial tissue composed essentially of keratinocytes. These cells are formed in the deepest layer of the epidermis (the basal layer) and then are pushed toward the spinous layer by younger cells. As they migrate, the keratinocytes become impregnated with a fibrous protein, keratin, which gradually replaces their cytoplasm. By the time the cells reach the outer layer (the horny layer), their nuclei have completely disintegrated. These dead, flattened keratinous cells make the skin impermeable. The dead cells that make up the horny layer are constantly sloughed off to make room for new cells. spinous layer pore Although it is very thin (0.1 mm), the epidermis plays a major role in body defense, forming a physical barrier. The cells of the basal layer are constantly multiplying through mitosis. Different types of tactile receptors detect the stimuli of touch, pressure, and temperature. The dermis is composed of connective tissue rich in blood vessels and nerves. blood vessel nerve The hypodermis, located under the dermis, contains mainly adipose (fatty) tissue. The perspiration produced by the sweat glands exits the skin via tiny orifices, the pores. adipose tissue THE SKIN’S DEFENSES Human skin has many means of defending itself against various assaults. The epidermis contains two proteins: keratin, which makes it impermeable, and melanin, which blocks ultraviolet rays. Perspiration protects against certain bacteria, cools the skin, and evacuates certain substances. Sebum, released by sebaceous glands attached to hair follicles, is a fatty substance that keeps the skin from drying out and protects it from bacteria. When sensory receptors detect injuries, the central nervous system is able to react. 18 medulla cuticle Hairs, made by the hair follicles in the dermis, grow over most of our skin. They have sebaceous glands, which coat them with sebum; arrector muscles, which pull them upright when necessary (cold or fright); and nerve receptors, which detect the lightest touch. PIGMENTS FOR SUN PROTECTION The deepest layer of the epidermis contains specialized cells called melanocytes. Activated by melanocyte-stimulating hormone produced by the pituitary, melanocytes produce melanin, a dark-brown pigment. Melanin molecules released by the cellular extensions of melanocytes enter the keratinocytes and settle over cell nuclei to protect them from potentially carcinogenic ultraviolet rays. The architecture of the body cortex melanin keratinocyte Melanocytes comprise 8% of the epidermic cells. The color of the skin depends not on the number of melanocytes, but on their size and degree of activity. Sebaceous glands produce sebum, a substance that coats the hairs and skin with oil. arrector muscle of hair hair follicle HOW THE SKIN FORMS SCARS When the skin sustains a deep injury Q, down to the dermis or even the hypodermis, a substance generated by blood coagulation, fibrin W, rapidly forms a clot at the bottom of the wound. When the clot dries up, it creates a crust E, which has to be eliminated so that the cells of the epidermis can migrate to form a new epidermis. At the same time, fibroblasts (young cells) R and capillaries (small blood vessels) of the dermis multiply to reconstruct the tissues T. As tissues grow, they push the crust toward the normal surface of the epidermis, where a small swelling, or scar, may form Y. epidermis dermis crust fibrin scar Y 0 E 0 T 0 0 W 0 Q R 0 deep wound fibroblasts reconstructed tissue 19 Index quadriceps 35 rectum 109 red blood cell 77 red bone marrow 20, 77 reflex 55 reproduction 114, 116, 118, 120, 122 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 98, 100 retina 61, 62 rib 29 ribcage 29 ribonucleic acid 13 ribosome 9, 13 risorius 39 RNA 13 root of the tooth 107 sclera 60 scrotum 114 sebaceous gland 19 sebum [G] 18 semen 114 semicircular canals 67 senses 58, 60, 62, 64, 66, 68, 70, 72 sexual relations 118 shaft 20 short bone 26 shoulder 32 shoulder blade 26 SIGHT 60, 62 sinus [G] 100 SKELETAL MUSCLES 34, 36, 40 SKELETON 24 SKIN 18, 58 skull 27 small intestine 105, 109 SMELL 72 sneezing 101 somatosensory cortex 59 SPEECH 102 spermatozoid 115, 119 sphenoid bone 27 sphincter 39 spinal bulb 48 spinal cord 46 spinal ganglion 47 spinal nerves 46, 53 SPINE 28 spinothalamic tract 59 spleen 87 spongy bone tissue 20 stem cell [G] 77 sternocleidomastoid muscle 38 sternum 29 STOMACH 105, 108 swallowing 104 sweat gland 18 sympathetic ganglion 46, 54 sympathetic system 54 synapse 45 synaptic cleft 45 synovial fluid 32 systemic bloodstream 79 systole 84 S T saccule 67 sacrum 28 saliva 68, 105 salivary gland 68 sarcomere 36 sartorius 34 scar 19 Schwann cell 45 sciatic nerve 53 tactile receptor 18, 55 talus 26, 31 target cell 91 tarsus 31 TASTE 68, 70 taste bud 71 tear 61 TEETH 106 temporal bone 27 perichondrium 22 periosteum 20, 22 PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 52 peritoneum 108 phagocytic cell 88 phagocytosis 88 phalanges 30 pharynx 98 phonation 102 photoreceptor [G] 60 PITUITARY GLAND 90, 92 placenta [G] 122 plasma 76 plasmocyte 89 pleura 99 precapillary sphincter 80 premolar 106 progesterone 119 prostate 114 protein synthesis 9, 12 pubis 116 pulmonary alveoli 101 pulmonary artery 79 pulmonary bloodstream 79 pulmonary vein 79 pulp 107 pulse 79 pupil 60, 63 pus 88 pylorus 108 QR temporal muscle 39 tendon 35, 36, 41 testicle 115 thalamus 50 thumb 30, 41 thymine 11 thyroid gland 91, 92 TISSUES 14 toe 31 tongue 69, 70 tonsils 68, 87 TOUCH 58 trachea 98 trapezius 35 triceps 35 trophoblast 120 tympanum 65, 66 U umbilical cord 121, 123 uracil 13 ureter 94 urethra 94 URINARY SYSTEM 94 urine 95 uterus 116, 120 utricle 67 V vagina 116, 118 valve 80, 83 VEINS 78, 80 vena cava 78 vertebra 26, 28 vertebral foramen 29 vestibular nerve 65 visual cortex 63 vitreous body 60 vocal folds 103 vulva 116 W white blood cell 76, 88 white matter 46, 50 wrist 30, 32 YZ yellow bone marrow 21 zona pellucida 119 zygomatic muscle 38 zygote 120 Terms in CAPITAL LETTERS and page numbers in boldface type refer to a main entry. The symbol [G] indicates a Glossary listing. 128 Extrait de la publication Extrait de la publication