Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Learning Adaptation to the Environment • Learning—any process through which experience at one time can alter an individual’s behavior at a future time • A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience Behaviorism • The view that psychology should restrict its efforts to studying observable behaviors, not mental processes. • Founded by John Watson – Thought that all human behavior is a result of conditioning or due to past experience and environmental influences. – Claimed he could take any child and train him to become any type of specialist. Classical Conditioning • A type of learning where a stimulus gains the power to cause a response because it predicts another stimulus that already produces that response • OR to put it simply: When an animal learns to do a natural reflexive response to something that it would normally not do the response to. • Form of learning by association Stimulus-Response • Stimulus - anything in the environment that one can respond to • Response – any behavior or action Stimulus-Response Relationship Stimulus-Response Relationship Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) Pavlov’s Dogs • Digestive reflexes and salivation • Psychic secretion Pavlov’s Research Apparatus Ivan Pavlov • Watch “Pavlov’s Discovery of Classical Conditioning” Video #6 from Worth’s Digital Media Archive for Psychology. • Click on link below to view. Classical Conditioning NEUTRAL STIMULUS will elicit NO REACTION UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS will elicit a Unconditioned REFLEX ACTION Response will elicit a Unconditioned REFLEX ACTION Response will elicit a CONDITIONED RESPONSE UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS NEUTRAL STIMULUS CONDITIONED CONDITIONEDSTIMULUS STIMULUS Neutral Stimulus—Bell • Does not normally elicit (cause) a response or reflex action by itself – a bell ringing – a color – a furry object Unconditioned Stimulus—Food • Always elicits a reflex action: an unconditioned (unlearned) response – food – blast of air – noise Unconditioned Response —Salivation • The automatic response to the unconditioned stimulus • A response to an unconditioned stimulus— naturally occurring & not learned – Salivation at smell of food – Eye blinks at blast of air – Startle reaction in babies Conditioned (Learned) Stimulus — Bell • The stimulus that was originally neutral becomes conditioned after it has been paired with the unconditioned stimulus • Will eventually cause the unconditioned response by itself Conditioned (Learned) Response - Salivation • The original unconditioned response becomes conditioned after it has been caused by the neutral stimulus • Usually the same behavior as the UCR Pavlov’s Experiment Pavlov’s Experiment Pavlov’s Experiment Classical Conditioning Terms • • • • • Aquisition Extinction Spontaneous recovery Generalization Discrimination training Acquisition • The process of developing a learned response • The initial learning that takes place in the during stage of conditioning when the animal starts to associate the NS with the US. Acquisition Extinction • The diminishing of a learned response • When the CS is continually presented without the UCS then the CR will eventually begin to disappear. Extinction Spontaneous Recovery • The reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished conditioned response • After a period of time if the CS is presented, the CR returns. • Learning may disappear but is not eliminated. Spontaneous Recovery Generalization • Process in which an organism produces the same CR to two similar stimuli (CS) • The more similar the substitute stimulus is to the original used in conditioning, the stronger the generalized response Generalization Discrimination • Ability of an animal to not respond to a new CS that is too different from the original CS. • The subject learns that one stimuli predicts the UCS and the other does not. John B. Watson and Little Albert • 11-month-old infant • Watson and his assistant, Rosalie Rayner, classically conditioned Albert to be frightened of white rats • Led to questions about experimental ethics To Watch a Short Video on Watson and the Little Albert experiment click HERE. (4 min) Little Albert – Before Conditioning Little Albert – During Conditioning Little Albert – After Conditioning Little Albert - Generalization Could Little Albert’s Fear Have Been Undone? • YES!!! Through Counter Conditioning! • Must pair the conditioned stimulus (Rat) with something that is incompatible with fear (Candy). BEFORE: Rat Fear CS = CR DURING: Rat Candy Happy CS + UCS = UCR AFTER: Rat Not Scared CS = New CR Candy Happy UCS = UCR Classical Conditioning & Drug Use Responses Similar to the Drug’s Effect: Classically Conditioned Drug Effect • Drugs that are regularly used to restore normal functioning produce a conditioned response (CR) similar to the drug’s effect. (see diagram below) • This can result in a Placebo Response – a psychological & physiological reaction to a fake treatment or drug. – You feel more alert after drinking decaffeinated coffee Responses OPPOSITE to the Drug’s Effect: Classically Conditioned Compensatory Response • Drugs that are regularly used to disrupt normal functioning produce a conditioned compensatory response (CCR) opposite to the drug’s effect. • This is caused by your body naturally trying to compensate and restore normal functioning. • Eventually, stimuli that reliably precede the administration of a drug cause a physiological reaction that is opposite to the drug’s effects. • May be one explanation for the characteristics of withdrawal and tolerance The Conditioned Compensatory Response Siegel’s CCR Studies • If a drug abuser does their drug in an unfamiliar setting they will run the risk of overdose because they will not have the CCR effect before they take the drug. • Spontaneous recovery is a reason people relapse when they find themselves in a similar situation to the one in which they regularly used the drug. Siegel’s Rat Study • Over the course of a month, rats gradually developed tolerance to increasing amounts of heroin. • Then, they were injected with an overdose of almost twice as much heroin as they had become accustomed to receiving. • Rats that were injected with the heroin overdose in the same setting in which they had previously received heroin were twice as likely to survive as were rats that were injected in a different setting. • Almost all the rats in the control group that had not previously been exposed to heroin died. CCR & Drug Overdose • Some heroin addicts have died after injecting their usual amount of heroin in an unfamiliar environment. Why? Cognition and Biological Predispositions: Does Classical Conditioning change what the animal knows as well as its behavior? Robert Rescorla (1940- ) • Developed a theory emphasizing the importance of cognitive/mental processes in classical conditioning • Pointed out that subjects had to determine (think) whether the NS/CS was a reliable predictor of the UCS – The Bell was a reliable predictor that Food would follow. Rescorla’s Experiment •Group 1 found the tone to be a reliable predictor of the shock and as a result their heart rates increased each time they heard it. •Group 2 experienced 20 random shocks with no tone in addition to the original 20 shocks with a tone. They had a much smaller fear response to the tone because it was not a reliable predictor of the shock.(pg. 200-201) Evolutionary Perspective Biological Preparedness & Phobias Martin Seligman • We are biologically predisposed to learn things that affect our survival. • We are predisposed to avoid threats our ancestors faced-food that made us sick, storms, heights, snakes, etc. – People more easily acquire conditioned fear responses to pictures of snakes & spiders when paired with electric shocks than they do with flowers and mushrooms. – Monkeys will learn a fear response to snakes & crocodiles but not to flowers and toy rabbits. • But not modern-day threats—knives, stoves, cars, water pollution, etc. – Recent studies showed that children like Little Albert could NOT be classically conditioned to fear things like wooden blocks & curtains. Taste Aversion John Garcia (1917- ) • Rats drank flavored water (NS) and hours later were given a shot with a drug (UCS) that made them sick (UCR). The rats refused to drink the flavored water again. • Subjects become classically conditioned to avoid specific tastes, because the tastes are associated with nausea. **Differs from other Classical Conditioning in that: •It did NOT require repeated pairings of a NS and UCS. •The time span between the two was a few hours. •Rats were conditioned to taste and not anything else that occurred in the hours between when they drank the flavored water and got sick. How Taste Aversion Works: BEFORE Flavored Water Drug NS = No Response DURING: Flavored Water Drug Nausea NS + UCS = UCR AFTER: Flavored Water Avoidance CS = CR Nausea UCS = UCR