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Earth’s external processes Down and Dirty: The Formation of Soils Weathering Weathering – the physical breakdown (disintegration) and chemical alteration (decomposition) or rock at or near Earth’s surface Erosion – the physical removal of material by mobile agents such as water, wind, ice, or gravity Weathering Two types of weathering • Mechanical weathering – breaking of rocks into smaller pieces • Four types of mechanical weathering – Frost wedging – alternate freezing and thawing of water in fractures and cracks promotes the disintegration of rocks Mechanical Weathering continued – Unloading – exfoliation of igneous and metamorphic rocks at the Earth’s surface due to a reduction in confining pressure – Thermal expansion – alternate expansion and contraction due to heating and cooling – Biological activity – disintegration resulting from plants and animals 1 Weathering Chemical Weathering • Breaks down rock components and internal structures of minerals • Most important agent involved in chemical weathering is water (responsible for transport of ions and molecules involved in chemical processes) Weathering Major processes of chemical weathering • Dissolution – Aided by small amounts of acid in the water – Soluble ions are retained in the underground water supply • Oxidation – Any chemical reaction in which a compound or radical loses electrons Weathering Major processes of chemical weathering • Oxidation continued – Important in decomposing ferromagnesian minerals • Hydrolysis – The reaction of any substance with water – Hydrogen ion attacks and replaces other positive ions 2 Weathering Alterations caused by chemical weathering • Decomposition of unstable minerals • Generation or retention of materials that are stable • Physical changes such as the rounding of corners or edges Weathering Rates of weathering • Advanced mechanical weathering aids chemical weathering by increasing the surface area Others factors affecting weathering • Rock characteristics – Rocks containing calcite (marble and limestone) readily dissolve in weakly acidic solutions Increase in surface area by mechanical weathering granite limestone An obvious example of how weathering differs with different mineral solubilities 3 Weathering Others factors affecting weathering • Rock characteristics continued – Silicate minerals weather in the same order as their order of crystallization Others factors affecting weathering, cont’d •Climate –Temperature and moisture are the most crucial factors –Chemical weathering is most effective in areas of warm, moist climates Weathering Differential weathering Differential weathering controlled by jointing patterns • Masses of rock do not weather uniformly due to regional and local factors • Results in many unusual and spectacular rock formations and landforms 4 Joint-controlled weathering in igneous rocks Soil Soil is a combination of mineral and organic mater, water, and air • That portion of the regolith (rock and mineral fragments produced by weathering) that supports the growth of plants Typical components in a soil that yields good plant growth Soil Factors controlling soil formation • Parent material – Residual soil – parent material is the underlying bedrock – Transported soil – forms in place on parent material that has been carried from elsewhere and deposited 5 Soil Factors controlling soil formation • Time – Important in all geologic processes – Amount of time for soil formation varies for different soils depending on geologic and climatic conditions • Climate – Most influential control of soil formation – Key factors are temperature and precipitation Variations in soil development due to topography Soil Factors controlling soil formation • Plants and animals – Organisms influence the soil’s physical and chemical properties – Also furnish organic matter to the soil • Slope – Steep slopes often have poorly developed soils – Optimum terrain is a flat-to-undulating upland surface Soil The soil profile • Soil forming processes operate from the surface downward • Vertical differences are called horizons – zones or layers of soil 6 Soil The soil profile • O horizon – organic matter • A horizon – organic and mineral matter – High biological activity – Together the O and A horizons make up the topsoil • E horizon – little organic matter Soil The soil profile • B horizon – zone of accumulation • C horizon – partially altered parent material The O, A, E, and B horizons together are called the solum, or “true soil” – Zone of eluviation and leaching An idealized soil profile A soil profile showing different horizons O A B C 7 Soil Soil types • The characteristics of each soil type primarily depend on the prevailing climatic conditions Three very generic soil types • Pedalfer, Pedocal, Laterite Soil Three very generic soil types • Pedalfer – Best developed under forest vegetation – Accumulation of iron oxides and Al-rich clays in the B horizon • Pedocal – Associated with dry grasslands and brush vegetation – High accumulations of calcium carbonate • Laterite – Hot and wet tropical climates – Intense chemical weathering Significance of Soil to Forensics Although soils can be grouped together in various categories according to characteristics, no two soils are truly identical. This is partly a function of the fact that no two parent materials (e.g. rocks) are truly identical. Also, the amounts and types of organic material contained in soils differ according to climate and vegetation type To trace the transfer patterns or ultimate source areas of particular soils, forensic geologists focus on the unusual, rather than the usual. Features unique to soil of a particular area can include distinctive minerals, texture, and colour Soils are the most common materials used in forensic geology because of their dominance on the Earth’s surface (soils are most likely to be picked up and transferred), and their diverse characteristics. In some cases, the concept of superposition is also useful 8 Coors Case Adolph Coors III (age 44, grandson Adolph Coors I, the founder of Coors brewery), disappeared on the morning of February 9, 1960 near Morrison, Colorado (near Denver). A famous example… Denver Morrison Coors’ car was later found with the motor still running Coors’ glasses, hat, and spots of blood were found at the scene, suggesting murder of the victim and removal of the body. A car belonging to a suspect (Joseph Corbett, Jr.) was discovered February 17, burning in a garbage dump in Atlantic City, New Jersey Was there a connection ? 9 Deposited first Layer 4 (dump site soil) The three inner layers were obviously different than the lastdeposited layer and had a mineralogy with broad similarities to soils from the Rocky Mountain Front west of Denver, Colorado Deposited last Layer 3 (body site) Colorado Soil ? Layer 4 (dump site soil) Layer 1 Fender Surface Layer 2 With hopes of locating the victim, investigators collected over 350 samples from Rocky Mountain Front, comparing these samples with soil on suspect’s car. Sept. 12-14, 1960: Most of Coors’ body recovered Layer 3 Soil samples obtained from the fender of the car showed four distinct layers Before analyses were completed, Coors’ body was found about 43 km south of Denver. Layer 2 Layer 1 Fender Surface Colorado Soil ? Outermost layer (deposited last) matched soil sampled at the entrance of the dump Further soil comparisons indicated similarities between layer 3 on fender and soil where body was found (south of Denver) – material included distinctive pink feldspar from Pike’s Peak granite) Sept. 15, 1960: Coors’ skull located 10 Deposited first Deposited first Layer 4 (dump site soil) Layer 3 (body site) June 8, 1957: Corbett buys a revolver through mail order. Denver-area soil ? August 1, 1995: Corbett escapes from California Institution of Men, Chino, California. Layer 2 ( Coors ranch) March, 1951: Corbett pleads guilty to second-degree murder in San Rafael County, California -sentenced to a term of five years to life -eventually jailed at California Institution for Men, Chino, California. Layer 1 Some additional evidence that surfaces in the investigation Fender Surface Layer 4 (dump site soil) Layer 3 (body site) Layer 2 ( Coors ranch) Fender Surface Layer 1 Colorado soil ? Further soil comparisons indicated similarities between layer 2 on fender and soil from “Dakota Hogback” where Coors’ ranch was located (material included grains derived from sandstone, gray, green and maroon shales, and traces of limestone) The origin of layer 1 was inconclusive, but was determined to have been sourced from somewhere in the Denver area (grains diagnostic of weathered Front Range granites in Denver area) April 25, 1959: Corbett purchases handcuffs by mail-order October 8, 1959: Corbett buys typewriter December 23, 1959: Corbett sells his 1957 Ford. January 8, 1960: Corbett registers 1951 yellow Mercury fourdoor car under the name Walter Osborne. February 10, 1960: Early Morning. Corbett moves out of his apartment in Denver. Ransom note demanding $500,000 arrives addressed to Mrs. Adolph Coors, III. Postmark is February 9, 3PM. Ransom is never collected. February 24, 1959: Corbett purchases leg irons from a navy surplus mail order company. 11 Capture Corbett was eventually captured in October, 1960 in Vancouver, Canada, convicted in Colorado court, and sentenced to life in prison. 1978: Corbett paroled End of Lecture The Bottom Line: Together with other evidence, soil was instrumental in reconstructing the crime. 12