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1 2 Gender Inequality Gender vs. Sex (pp. 295-297) Sex Biological differences that separate males and females Gender roles Set of psychological, cultural and social expectations we have about how to behave as man or a woman Refers to the personal traits and social positions that members of a society attach to being female or male 3 Gender (identities) Product of our social interactions We construct our identities according to our self-concept of gender roles and how people react with us in those roles Nurture vs. Nature (pp. 346-348) Margaret Mead’s Research If gender is based on biological differences, people everywhere should define “feminine” and “masculine” the same In New Guinea men and women have both characteristics and behaviors that would be associated with feminine behaviors in Western societies Gender roles are reversed from the roles traditionally assigned to males and females in Western societies Some men do “women’s work” Studied three societies in New Guinea Arapesh, Mundugumor, and Tchambuli 4 Concluded that culture is the key to gender distinction What one society defines as masculine another may see as feminine Gender Roles (1) (pp. 297-301) They represent our master status The way people see us and interact with us 5 They define our goals and ways of achieving them Result in gender inequality Not everybody has the same perspective on what gender roles should and/ or should NOT be Gender Roles (2) (pp. 297-301) 5 Gender Roles (2) (pp. 297-301) Doing gender Our socially constructed behaviors are often exaggerated People who deviate from specific gender roles are seen as deviant and often homosexual “Baby X” Experiment People interact based on certain colors The colors dictate their behaviors 6 “Is it a boy or a girl?” Important because answer involves not only sex but the likely direction of a child’s life Gender Roles (3) (pp. 297-301) Women’s Gender Roles Female world revolves around cooperation and emotion How do girls come to develop a feminine self-image? Role models Children’s books in the 40s-60s show girls underrepresented in central roles and illustrations 7 Motherhood mandate Women are expected to marry and have children Women should want to be mothers Women’s success is often measured in whether their kids turn out alright Men’s success is measured by their careers! Gender Roles (4) (pp. 297-301) Men’s gender roles Boys and men are also restricted in the behaviors that they can do They are supposed to like gym, sports, and physical activities 8 Male world puts a premium on independence and action Gender Roles (5) Specific elements of Masculinity NO SISSY STUFF: NO VULNERABILITY! Specific elements of Masculinity NO SISSY STUFF: NO VULNERABILITY! Success element Masculinity proven in sports, work Aggressive Use force to deal with others Sexual Initiate/control all sexual relations Self-reliant Keep your cool! 9 10 Gender Roles (6) Biggest element of ANTIFEMINISM Learn what girls are supposed to do, then do the opposite Boys who do not conform to this masculine model face constant criticism 11 This might explain why men hate sharing intimate feelings Patriarchy and Matriarchy (1) (p. 302) Matriarchy (“Rule of Mothers”) A form of social organization in which females dominate males Rarely documented in human history Patriarchy (“Rule of Fathers”) A form of social organization in which males dominate females Pattern found almost everywhere in the world Women take on the name of their husband after getting married 12 Sexism The belief that one sex is innately superior to the other Justification for patriarchy Patriarchy and Matriarchy (2) (p. 302) The Costs of Sexism Limits the talents and ambitions of half the human population – women Masculinity in U.S. culture encourages men to engage in high-risk behaviors 13 14 Limits the talents and ambitions of half the human population – women Masculinity in U.S. culture encourages men to engage in high-risk behaviors Masculinity is linked to: Accidents, suicide, violence, and stress related diseases As men seek control, they lose opportunities for intimacy and trust Gender Differentiation It requires that not only individuals are socialized into traditional roles within the family, but also that institutions promote these roles There are also in every society people who successfully oppose stereotypes, like strong women and nurturing men Pay attention gender and language Gender Inequality (1) (pp. 302-310) Difference in the status, power, and prestige that men and women have in groups, collectivities, and societies Gender is a dimension of social organization Gender involves a hierarchy Questions Do women have equal access to valued societal resources? Do men and women have similar life options? 15 16 Are women’s and men’s roles valued similarly? Gender Inequality (2) (pp. 302-310) Do biological differences become the reasons why certain occupations are more suited for men or women? Does being a female suit you better to be a teacher or nurse? Does being a male suit you better to be a CEO? Think about the social expectations for each occupation Do those expectations match in some ways the social expectations associated with masculinity and femininity? Why are 99% of secretaries women? Why are 99% of auto mechanic men? Gender Inequality (3) (pp. 302-310) Institutionally, it involves policies, procedures and practices that produce unequal outcomes for men and women While it could be applied to both men and women, women are the main While it could be applied to both men and women, women are the main recipients of disadvantages and inequality 17 Women can be referred to as a minority groups Gender Inequality (4) (pp. 302-310) Gender shapes interests and beliefs about abilities, guiding areas of study, and career choices Women are now the majority (57%) of students on college campuses Now represented in many fields of study that once excluded them Men still predominate in many fields Engineering, physics, and philosophy 18 19 Women cluster in the fine arts Social sciences Gender Inequality (5) (pp. 302-310) Men hold center stage in television Historically, ads show women in the home Study of gender in advertising revealed that men usually appear taller than women implying male superiority Women are more frequently portrayed lying down appearing sexual and submissive Advertising perpetuates the “beauty myth” Society teaches women to measure their worth in terms of physical appearance Women as a Minority Group (1) They have encountered prejudice and discrimination They have physical traits and cultural traits that distinguish them from men They represent a self-conscious group 20 Their membership is involuntary Women as a Minority Group (2) Women make up 51% of the population but only 3 states had a female governor in 2000 What about today? 8 in 2009 Women make up 51% of the population but only 3 states had a female governor in 2000 What about today? 8 in 2009 There were only 72 women in Congress in 2001 (59 House, 13 Senate), and 95 in 2008 (79 house, 16 senate) more than ever before 21 22 23 In 2003, women held about 22% of seats in state legislatures, five times more than in 1969 Median Earnings of Full-Time, Year-Round Workers by Gender, 1960-2008 Ratio of Female-to-Male Median Weekly Earnings for Full-Time Wage and Salary Workers, U.S. 2012 Pink collar jobs? It refers to the idea that women are a better fit for certain positions such as secretaries or retail sales positions However, those careers are poorly paid with less promotional outlooks 73% of minimum wage earners are women 24 25 26 27 Those positions are reinforced by socialization during which women are told that their husbands’ careers come first Men seek better paid positions with better career outlooks Intersection of Race and Gender (1) Intersection of Race and Gender (2) Glass Ceiling & Glass Escalator (pp. 310-311) Set of invisible barriers that prevent women from advancing in their careers, especially in “male-dominated” industry Globally, women occupy only 2 to 3% of top corporate positions 40% of Japanese corporations hire NO women college graduate for management-level positions In “female-dominated” jobs, sociologists have found that males tend to be promoted much faster Might be due to clients willing to deal with males rather females Sexual Harassment (1) (p. 311) It refers to unwanted or repeated sexual advances, remarks, or behavior that offensive to the recipient and cause discomfort or interference with job performance Quid Pro Quo Demands of sexual acts in return (or promises) of job-related advancement Quid Pro Quo Demands of sexual acts in return (or promises) of job-related advancement 28 29 30 “Hostile work environment” Sexual language, sexual advances make a worker uncomfortable Sexual Harassment (2) (p. 311) Women are the most affected by sexual harassment However, they do not always report it because Of the lack of knowledge about the offenses related to sexual harassment They are reluctant to come forward because of the fear of not being believed It is hard to differentiate between joking on the job and sexual harassment Family & Gender Issues Hochschild’s The Second Shift When both men and women work full-time, women have a double burden of work outside the home and childcare/housework afterwards They are oppressed at work during the first shift, and once they go home with the second shift (unpaid labor) Women spend 15 hours a week less then men in leisure activities In a year, women spend an extra month of 24 hours days in unpaid child care and housework Causes stress in women subject to these concerns Violence Against Women (1) (pp. 315-318) Rape It is sociologically defined as the forcing of non-consensual vaginal, oral and anal intercourse It is an act of violence, NOT a sexual act “No means No” Rape can be the result of continual pressure, threat, coercion and force 31 Most rapes are committed by relatives (husbands included) At least 80% of all sexual assaults are committed by an acquaintance of the victim (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2001) Violence Against Women (2) (pp. 315-318) At least 1 in 4 college women will be the victim of a sexual assault during her academic career. (Hirsch, 1990) 48.8% of college women who were victims of attacks that met the study’s definition of rape did not consider what happened to them rape (Bureau of Justice Stats, 2000) 32 33 48.8% of college women who were victims of attacks that met the study’s definition of rape did not consider what happened to them rape (Bureau of Justice Stats, 2000) There are 35.3 incidents of sexual assault per 1,000 female students on a campus as recorded over a 6.91 month period (the academic year of ‘96 – ’97) as reported in the 2000 DOJ Bureau of Justice Statistics report “The Sexual Victimization of College Women.” On average, at least 50% of college students’ sexual assaults are associated with alcohol use (Abbey et al., 1996a, 1998) Within a nationally represented sample of college students the results found that 74% of perpetrators and 55% of rape victims had been drinking alcohol prior to the assault (Koss, 1998) In a survey of high school students, 56% of girls and 76% of boys [some of whom may be incoming college freshmen] believed forced sex was acceptable under some circumstances (Acquaintance Rape: The Hidden Crime, 1991) Violence Against Women (3) (pp. 315-318) Rape might be the result of culture, also known as “rape culture” Most rapes involve men known and trusted by their victims Men are socialized to believe that they have a sense of sexual entitlement Might encourage encounters and promiscuity Men believed that they have led on, then they are entitled to have sex (research on college students in 1990) Violence Against Women (4) (pp. 315-318) Death and injury – The study found that globally, 38% of all women who were murdered were murdered by their intimate partners, and 42% of women who have experienced physical or sexual violence at the hands of a partner had experienced injuries as a result. Depression – Partner violence is a major contributor to women’s mental health problems, with women who have experienced partner violence being almost twice as likely to experience depression compared to women who have not experienced any violence. Alcohol use problems – Women experiencing intimate partner violence are almost twice as likely as other women to have alcohol-use problems. Sexually transmitted infections – Women who experience physical and/or sexual partner violence are 1.5 times more likely to acquire syphilis infection, chlamydia, or gonorrhoea. In some regions (including sub-Saharan Africa), they are 1.5 times more likely to acquire HIV. Unwanted pregnancy and abortion – Both partner violence and non-partner Sexually transmitted infections – Women who experience physical and/or sexual partner violence are 1.5 times more likely to acquire syphilis infection, chlamydia, or gonorrhoea. In some regions (including sub-Saharan Africa), they are 1.5 times more likely to acquire HIV. Unwanted pregnancy and abortion – Both partner violence and non-partner sexual violence are associated with unwanted pregnancy; the report found that women experiencing physical and/or sexual partner violence are twice as likely to have an abortion than women who do not experience this violence. 34 35 Low birth-weight babies – Women who experience partner violence have a 16% greater chance of having a low birth-weight baby. Functionalist Approaches on Gender Inequality (1) (pp. 322-325) Gender differentiation contributes to overall societal stability, as well as makes sure that all roles within the family are efficiently covered Women are seen as the key to a good socialization for children, and good for the overall stability of the family, which in returns is good for children Functionalist Approaches on Gender Inequality (2) (pp. 322-325) Talcott Parsons: Gender and Complementarity Gender forms a complementary set of roles Links women and men into family units Gives each sex responsibility for carrying out important tasks Gender plays and important part in socialization Instrumental qualities 36 Society encourages gender conformity by instilling in men and women fear of rejection Gender integrates society both structurally and morally Functionalist Approaches on Gender Inequality (3) (pp. 322-325) Reality check Functionalism assumes a singular vision of society that is not shared by everyone Parson’s analysis ignores the personal strains and social costs of rigid gender roles In the eyes of those seeking sexual equality Gender complementarity amounts to little more than women submitting to 37 38 39 In the eyes of those seeking sexual equality Gender complementarity amounts to little more than women submitting to male domination Interactionist Approach on Gender Inequality (1) Women “naturally” want and take the EXPRESSIVE role Concern with the maintenance of harmony and internal emotional affairs of the family Women provide care and support for the children They are subordinate Men take INSTRUMENTAL role Emphasis on tasks, focus on distant goals, concern for the relationship between the family and social institutions Men are supposed to be the breadwinner Interactionist Approaches on Gender Roles (2) Looks at gender stratification through everyday behavior Men and interruptions Men initiate 96% of interruptions in male/female conversations Men change topics Men ignore topics chosen by women Men minimize contributions of the opposite sex Men validate their own ideas and contributions Interactionist Approaches on Gender Roles (3) Women spend even more time thinking about children’s care and feel guilty if job demands keep them from thinking about their babies Men are more likely to see housework as a leisure activity that they choose to do It is a women’s work, so it feels like play to men, not work 40 Why do women accept this? (Hint: if you want it done right, do it yourself…”) Feminist Approaches on Gender Inequality (pp. 325-327) Feminist writers are interested in the unequal position of women in society Tries to explain inequalities through different lenses such as sexism, patriarchy, capitalism and racism Sociological studies like the Zimbardo Prison experiment, the Milgram Experiment are done with male subjects, then generalized to all peoples Since men and women have different life experiences, they are likely to approach different issues in different ways Since men and women have different life experiences, they are likely to approach different issues in different ways 41 Liberal feminism Radical feminism Black feminism Liberal Feminism (pp. 325-327) They explain gender inequality through culture They do not believe that the subordination of women is rooted in the structure of society They are interested in educational disparities, discrimination in the workplace, and the portrayal of women in the media They believe in gradual change (and have been successful at it) 42 They are accused by other feminists to want to change minor things in the system, and therefore accept the unequal competitive nature of society Radical Feminism (pp. 325-327) They believe that men are responsible and benefit from the exploitation of women Patriarchy exemplifies this belief It is seen as the universal organization of societies Men exploit women by benefiting from the free domestic labor that women provide at home Male violence against females is central to male supremacy Women’s bodies are sexualized and exploited 43 Gradual reform will not liberate women Since patriarchy is systematic, the only solution is the overthrowing of the patriarchal order Black Feminism (pp. 325-327) White feminism has historically not included women of color (does not take racism into account) Example: struggle for the right to vote, but at the same time no struggle from white women in favor of black women still being denied citizenship rights, and being economic and sexually oppressed White feminism tend to also be rooted in the middle class (does not take poverty into account) Black feminist emphasize the legacy of slavery, segregation, and the civil rights movement on gender inequalities in the black community Black feminist emphasize the legacy of slavery, segregation, and the civil rights movement on gender inequalities in the black community 44 Black women are discriminated on the basis of race and gender, and social class Those factors intersect and reinforce one another Conflict Approaches on Gender Inequality (1) Gender involves differences not just in behavior but in power as well Similarity between how traditional ideas about gender benefit men and the ways oppression of racial and ethnic minorities benefits white people 45 Conventional ideas about gender create division and tension Conflict Approaches on Gender Inequality (2) Friedrich Engels: Gender and Class Capitalism intensifies male domination Creates more wealth, which give greater power to men as earners and owners of property An expanding capitalist economy depends on turning people into consumers Society assigns women the task of maintaining the home to free men to work in factories 46 Double exploitation of capitalism Pay men low wages for labor Pay women no wages at all Why Should Gender Inequality Matter to You? (pp. 330-331) Women represent more than half of the population but are still a global minority group They represent a large portion of the global labor force Many women are now being directly impacted by globalization Equality is therefore needed