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THE MIDDLE EAST: 600-1450 KEY CONCEPTS I 11II 11II 11II 11II The world of Islam represents peoples of different ethnicities, cultures, and languages throughout the Middle East, Africa, Asia, and parts of Europe who were unified through the religion of Islam while still maintaining regional diversity. The Islamic world made tremendous contributions to art, science, and technology that vyould have a huge impact oJ) cultural and .economic developments in Asia, Africa, and Europe. The Mongols had a significant impact on the spread of Islam and preserved and built upon Islamic intellectual discoveries. The Mongols affected the Middle East in both positive and negative ways in terms of soc~al, political, and economic stability. , KEY TERMS 11II II 11II 11II 11II 11II 11II 11II 11II 11II 11II 11II 11II 11II Abbasid caliphate bubonic plague caliphate Five Pillars hajj II-khan. Islam mamluks Mongols Ottomans Quran Seljuk Turks Shari' a Shi'ite 137 ©20 II Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated; or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 138· .:. Chapter 7 • • • • • Sufism Sunni ulama umma Umayyad caliphate Islam is discussed in depth ih The Earth and Its Peoples, fourth and fifth editions, Chapter 8. The Crusades are discussed in Chapter 10, the Mongols in Chapter 12, and the Ottoman Turks in Chapter 20. THE ORIGINS OF ISLAM Islam, the youngest of the monotheistic religions, began on the Arabian peninsula. The founding prophet of the faith, Muhammad, was born in the trading town of Mecca in 570. Mecca was important in pre-Islamic history not only as an economic center but also as a holy site. Pilgrims went to Mecca to visit the Ka'ba, a shrine believed to have been built by the patriarch Abraham. Muhammad was raised as an orphan by his uncle, chief of his clan, and grew up to be a successful trading merchant. About 610, Muhammad began to meditate and had visions in which he came to believe that God-Allah, in Arabic-was revealing himself. Sharing his revelations, he began to gather a following that embraced his belief that there is only one true god, who was responsible for all of creation, and that people must submit to the authority of God. The word Islam means submission; a Muslim is one who submits to the will of Allah. The basic tenets of the Muslim faith, called the Five Pillars of Islam, are based on the practices of Muhammad and affirmed by the first caliph, Abu Bakr. You may encounter the Five Pillars on the AP exam, so knowing them is important. The Five Pillars are the statement of faith in one god and Muhammad as his messenger, prayer five times a day, fasting during Ramadan, charity through giving to the poor, II completion of at least one pilgrimage to Mecca, known in Arabic as the hajj. II!III II!III II!III The tribal leaders in Mecca came to fear that Muhammad's belief in one god threatened their power and security as well as the polytheistic traditions of their communities. Muhammad was therefore forced to flee to Medina in 622, a journey that is known as the Hijra, meaning the migration or flight of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina. This date, considered to be the beginning of the Islamic faith, marks the start of tke Muslim calendar. It was in Medina that the Islamic ©20 II Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. r I I The Middle East: 600':"'1450 ·:·139 community, or umma, solidified and ultimately was able to 'win over Mecca in 630. After' completing a pilgrimage to the Ka'ba, a tradition' that lives on as the hajj, Muhammad returned to Medina to manage both the political, and religious affairs of this reinvigorated city-state, ,until his death two years later, in 632. ' Muhammad's death immediately raised the question of who would be Muhammad's successor, or caliph, which provoked the first major split in the Islamic umma. This split ultimately divided Muslims into two, major sects, the Sunnis and the Shi'ites. Shi'ite Muslims believe that succession should be traced through the bloodline of Muhammad; therefore, Muhammad's cousin Ali should have been the caliph and only Ali's descendants should be imams, or religious leaders of the Muslim community as a whole. To Shi'ites, the caliph is more of a secular leader. Sunni Muslims, believing that the caliph is to be, chosen by the community, regard the first three caliphs who succeeded Muhammad as properly selected. Sunnis see the caliph as a secular and religious leader; therefore the caliph is an imam as well. While the concept of the caliphate was a unifying faCtor, in reality the caliphate wa~ quite fragmented by the late ninth ceptury. ISLAMIC CALIPHATES One of the first tasks of Abu Bakr, the first caliph, was to collect and organize Muhammad's revelations into a book. Muslims, like Jews and Christians, are considered to be people of the book; their holy book is the Quran. Unlike the Hebrew and' Christian Bibles, the Quran is believed by Muslims to be the' literal words of God as given to Muhammad, not a collection of writings by many authors over a long period of time. The Quran was revealed in Arabic, is written in Arabic, and is to be read in Arabic. As the Muslim world grew to non-Arabicspeaking regions, the need to read the Quran in Arabic encouraged the growth of schools to teach the language and to interpret the Quran. Out of this holy book and the traditions of Muhammad slowly came Muslim law, Shari'a in Arabic, as well as the practices and traditions that are essential to the religion. As the dominant sect, Sunni Muslims established the Umayyad caliphate in 661, with its capital in Damascus, Syria. The peoples living under the control of the Umayyad caliph were predominately Arab. By 732 Arab Muslims had conquered Syria, Palestine, and North Africa; they gained control of a part of southern Spain-referred to as alAndalus-in the early eighth century. Under Muslim rule Spanish cities like Seville and Cordoba flourished as centers of government, where Muslims, Christians, and Jews created a unique culture known for its literature, art, architecture, and agricultural accomplishments. After a period of increasing conflict, the Abbasid caliphate was established in 750 and ruled until 1258 from its capital in Baghdad. Effective rule over such a large empire proved challenging for the Abbasids, particularly in terms of holding territory. The empire also became more diverse as more non-Arabs converted to Islam. Baghdad, the capital, became a thriving center for learning, culture, , and technological advancements despite the political and territorial fragmentation ,of the ninth century and, later, the Crusades. Islam continued to spread despite territorial loss. Scholars from all over ©20 11 Cengage Learning, All Rights Reserved, May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or post~d to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part, 140 .:. Chapter 7 Eurasia came to Baghdad to· learn about Islam and exchange information. Thanks to the transmission of papermaking from China, literature and books were much more available in the Middle East than in Europe. Unlike Christianity at this time, in particular the Catholic Church, Islam looked to many different sources ,for knowledge. Much of the great knowledge of antiquity, including the Greek classics, which would prove so important for the European Renaissance, as well as works from Persia and India, had been copied into Arabic, allowing the ideas to be shared across the Muslim world. Many of the works from the Hellenistic past helped Muslims to excel in science and technology. Astropomical observations, medicinal studies, and mathematics from the Greek past were reexamined, and Muslim scholars built on these studies. Cities like Baghdad and Cordoba were essential for the Muslim empire, both as ways of spreading the faith and as governing centers. New converts, many of whom were not Arab, could count on the cities as places to learn the language and traditions of their new faith free of discrimination. The mosque, the Muslim house of worship,. became a central architectural landmark that newcomers of the faith could recognize because of its distinctive features. One social group that rose in cities was the ulama, an Arabic word for people with religious knowledge. As the Muslim empire grew in cultural diversity under the Abbasid caliphate, the ulama sought to preserve central teachings and tenets of the faith. Two examples, both originating with Iranians, are the madrasa, or religious college; and Sufi brotherhoods, mystic religious groups, widespread in the Muslim world, that began to form in the early days of Islam. Cities were also essential as places of trade. Since the time of the Umayyad caliphate, a coinage system allowed for both local and longdistance trade that linked the more isolated portions of the Islamic empire and encouraged the burgeoning textile industry as well as other crafts: The Islamic world stood at the western end of the Silk Road, the most important overland trade route of the period 600-1450. Women in the· Islamic world had greater legal freedoms than Jewish or Christian women. Although seclusion of women and veiling are practices that are believed by many to have originated with Islam, they actually date to Byzantine and Sassanid times and later came to bea part of the Islamic tradition. Although Muslim women were not considered the equals of men, which was also true in the Byzantine Empire and western Europe, they were influential in family life, could own and inherit property, divorce, remarry, and testify in court. The Islamic faith spread through Muslim merchants who traveled along the Silk Road, allowing the religion to spread from Spain to China, aUhe eastern end ofthe SilkRoad. By the. middle of the ninth century several provinces had broken away and established their own caliphates, such as the Fatimid ©20 11 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned. copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 'The Middle East: 600'-1450 .:. 141 caliphate in Egypt. Another example was the Samariid caliphate, an Iranian dynasty that brought many Persian influences to the art and literature of the Islamic world. Because of territorial fragmentation, the Abbasid leaders came to rely on the mamluks, Turkish slaves from central Asia with exceptional skill in warfare. They became a powerful military presence in the Middle East during Islamic rule, and by the eleventh century, Turkish groups had. significantly diminished the territory and political power of the Abbasid caliphate. For example, in the early eleventh century the Seljuk Turks created a Turkish Muslim state that controlled territory from Baghdad up through Syria and into Anatolia and Byzantine areas. Christians viewed the Seljuk Turks as a tremendous threat, and they set out to take the Holy Land back from Turkish Muslims. THE CRUSADES I~ j , l The Crusades were a series of battles initiated by one monotheistic faith, Christianity, against another monotheistic faith, Islam. Study of the Crusades offers a wealth of fascinating ideas and details, but for AP students, the causes of the Crusades and their impact are of fundamental importance. The causes are discussed later, in Chapter 9, but the impact of the Crusades on the Middle East is discussed here. By the eleventh century, Muslim leaders were in control of many cities that were considered sacred by Christians, among them Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria. Christians had been allowed to make pilgrimage to these places, but as Muslims continued to eat away at the Byzantine Empire and conquer more territory deemed precious to Christendom, a campaign against the Muslims began to form in both western Europe and the Byzantine Empire. Jerusalem, a city of particular significance to Christians, Muslims, and Jews, was in the hands of the Seljuk Turks, who at the time of the· First Crusade were going through a period of internal dispute. Even though Christian crusaders had wrested Jerusalem from the Seljuk Turks in 1099, Islamic military forces under the dynamic leader Saladin were able to take back the city in 1187. The Islamic world in the Middle East continued to thrive despite the Crusaders' unsuccessful attempt to take land permanently, and the Crusades had very little long-term effects on Muslim territory. The greatest impact of the Crusades was therefore not on the Muslims themselves. Instead, European life, which was far less sophisticated than Muslims',. was dramatically improved. The incredible amount of information, ideas, goods, and resources that the Crusaders were exposed to in their encounter with the Muslim world was remarkable. Over _time, the Crusaders brought back paper and sugar, and they learned how to make many of the goods they previously could only import. The establishment of trading ports in Italian cities like Venice and Genoa helped open Europe to the diverse Muslim world of the Middle East. Demand for goods from the Middle East stimulated the markets of late medieval Europe and also encouraged trade between the Muslim world, western Europe, and the Byzantine Empire. Muslims also made enormous intellectual contributions to Europe in two ways: Their Arabic translations of works by ancient Greek scientists and philosophers such as Aristotle ©2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Chapter 7 allowed for the restoration of ideas that had long heenburied during the Middle Ages. Second, Arabs and Iranians, building on the work of the ancient philosophers, .l:1adadded their own insights to give rise t6 new and innovative ideas. This double gift of knowledge by the Muslim world was essential in laying the groundwork for the Renaissance. It is important to understand the similarities and differences between the monotheistic religions of Islam and Christianity as these two religions developed and grew into political and religious forces during the period 600-1450. I I' THE MONGOLS IN THE MIDDLE EAST Migrating from the Central Asian steppes as a nomadic group, the. Mongols were able to do what Europeans had failed to in the Crusades: they shattered what had once been the heart of the Muslim empire. The weakened and fragmented Abbasid caliphate was destroyed when Baghdad was sacked in 1258. This event appalled the Islamic world, which did not expect a catastrophe of this magnitude. Rather than destroy all that Islam had contributed to the world, however, the Mongols became ardent patrons of Islamic' culture, including art, literature, and architecture. Many of the Mongol leaders, known as khans, eventually converted to Islam and came to appreciate the urban infrastructure of the Islamic world. Still, tensions between Mongols and Muslims continued, much of it because of differences in cultural practices. The Mongols set up four khanates in Eurasia. The II-khan Empire in the Middle East was established in 1256 by the grandson of Genghis. Mongol nobles were placed in positions of power. Borrowing from an earlier. Middle, Eastern economic practice, the Mongols used tax farming-giving out private contracts to merchants to collect taxes by whatever means served them best. To foster the collection of as much money as possible, these merchants were allowed to keep any money above what was due to the government. Although this method was initially successful, tax farming coupled with an experiment using paper money from China eventually brought about an economic depression that outlived the II-khan Empire. The Islamic world had served as a major conduit for ideas and goods in its position at the western ~nd of the Silk Road, and that continued under Mongol rule. Fine products from the East such as silk and porcelain flowed into the Middle East and from there to Europe. Scholars, merchants, and missionaries traveled to the courts of the Mongols and recorded what they saw there. In addition, scholars such as Rashid aI-Din were patronized by the II-khans and wrote histories describing the greatness of the world controlled by the Mongols as well as histories of such faraway places as China and Europe. The Mongols were also fascinated by the scientific and mathematical innovation's of the Muslim world. Algebra and trigonometry, as well as 192011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. r "The Middle East: 600~ 1450 .:. 143 astronomical work that would one day be used by Europeans such as Copernicus, were all preserved and supplemented under both the II- . khans and their successors,· the Timurids. This knowledge spread across the world of the Mongols and Turks and eventually through translation reached Europe. In addition, trade also brought disease, specifically the bubonic plague, which made its way through the Middle East'and into Europe during Mongol rule. Far more than any attack or conquest, the plague would be the Mongols' most devastating impact .. By the fourteenth century, the Middle East was in the control of Turkish sultans and the Mongol khans. The Seljuk Turks still had a small kingdom that stood between the Byzantine Empire and the Mongols. The Mamluk Sultanate controlled Egypt and had successfully resisted a Mongol takeover to become a major player in shifting alliances with various khans to keep both II-khan power at bay and the Crusaders from gaining any ground. The II-khan Empire, which controlled territory from Syria to the Indus River, gave way to the Timurid Empire when the Central Asian Turkic leader Timur rose to take much of the Middle East before his death in 1405. The Timurid Empire was short-lived. The Ottoman Empire would be the next great Turkish presence in the Middle East. Like the Seljuk . Turks and the mamluks, the Ottomans were exceptionally skilled in warfare and conquest. As Mongol power began to decline, the Ottomans tightened their political organization and began their political ascent, establishing Turkic principalities in western Anatolia. Despite a defeat by Timur in 1402, the Ottoman sultans would take over the Byzantine Empire in 1453 and create a Muslim empire that would endure until the twentieth century . .Multiple-Choice 1 I i \ I i I I I Questions 1. The mamluks were (A) European mercenaries who traveled from the Byzantine Empire to Jerusalem (B) a Turkic nomadic group who migrated to Central Asia and .. established independent kingdoms (C) Indo-Europeans who converteq to Islam in the ninth century (D) a subsect of Islam that developed shortly after Muhammad's death (E) Turkic mercenaries in the Abbasid caliphate who rose to control powerful Muslim states 2. All of the following are characteristics of Islam EXCEPT (A) a monotheistic belief in one god that must be worshipped as the only god (B) a belief in a community of believers unified by their faith above all else (C) a tradition of passing down the central teachings of their faith orally (D) a spreading of the faith to the three continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa (E) a belief in the importance of prayer, fasting, and charity ©20 II Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 144 .:. Chapter 7 3. The caliph (A) always ruled over one extended area of land from Spain to India (B) was a position that dissolved a short time after Muhammad's death (C) was a position passed down through one family that traced its roots to Mecca (D) was a position created by the Abbasid family to solidify their rule in Baghdad (E) was considered to be the successor of Muhammad as well as a political Jeader 4. The Sunni/Shi'ite split resulted from disagreement over (A) whether Muhammad was a god . (B) the content of the Five Pillars (C) the role of the Ka'ba in Islam (D) who should succeed Muhammad (E) the validity of the Quran 5. The word Islam means submission and refers to Muslims' obligation. (A) to submit to the single authority of the caliph (B) to submit to the teachers of the ulama (C) to complete a pilgrimage to Mecca (D) to submit to the will of God in all of life (E) to submit to a life of celibacy 6. The group in 'control of Jerusalem at the time of the Crusades was the (A) Mongols (B) 'Persians (C) Sufi . (D) Abbasid caliphate (E) Seljuk Turks 7. Cities were important in Islam for all of the following reasons , EXCEPT (A) they were places to learn Arabic (B) they were administrative centers for government (C) they encouraged the exchange of new ideas (D) they were the only places where women could travel freely (E) they were central as places of trade 8. The Mongols (A) destroyed all knowledge of the intellectual contributions of the Muslim world (B) spread the bubonic plague through overland trade routes into Europe (C) allied with Europeans to defeat the Abbasid caliphate in 1258 (D) defeated the mamluks at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 (E) never converted to Islam because they disagreed with many Muslim cultural practices ©20 11 Cengage Learning. AU Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. · The Middle East: 600-1450 .:. 145 9. The Silk Road flourished under Mongol rule because (A) unlike the Muslims, who looked down on Il)erchants; the Mongols encouraged trade (B) the Mongols controlled all parts of the Silk Road, which allowed for relatively easy eXl:;hange (C) the Turks hired Mongol armies to protect the Silk Road (D) the Silk Road came into existence only during the period of Mongol rule in Eurasia (E) Timur destroyed the Silk Road as part of his conquest, so the only time the Silk Road succeeded as a trading network was under Mongol rule 10. Timur was notable for all the following reasons EXCEPT (A) helping to spread Muslim knowledge along the Silk Road (B) patronizing Muslim art and learning in a variety of ways (C) conquering former II-khan territories even though he was not a Mongol (D)'defeating the Ottomans in battle despite the sultan's growing power (E) creating the concept of tax farming in the Middle East 11. The Arabic peninsula is characterized by , (A) lush oases dotting the peninsula (B) arid desert throughout the majority of the peninsula (C) coastal, cities and agricultural villages close to sources of water and a large empty quarter in the central areas (D) a uniform arid climate, which can support only sparse nomadic populations throughout the peninsula (E) agriculture in large portions of the southern area of the peninsula, but no other economic activity of significance in' other areas of the peninsula 12. The universal language of the Muslim empire was (A) Semitic, because it was the common language of Christians, Muslims, and Jews (B) Persian, pecause scribes and other government officials considered it to be the most beautiful of languages (C) Spanish, because most of the translators and philosophers studied in Andalucia, the Spanish area of the empire (D) Arabic, because it was the language of the Quran (E) Latin, because most of the important texts of western Eurasia were written in that language . 13. The Muslim caliphate is significant in world history because (A) it is the first Afro-Eurasian empire (B) it peacefully incorporated many different cultural groups (C) it became the largest empire in history (D) it significantly improved the living standards of all its subjects (E) its beginnings as a nomadic culture made it remarkably egalitarian in its dealings between genders ©2011 Cengage Learning, All Rights Reserved, May not be scanned, copied or duplicat~d, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part 146 .:. Chapter 7 14. The Crusades are an important event in world history because (A) they were the first manifestation of belligerence between Muslims and Christians (B) they proved clearly that Christians were technologically and tactically superior to the Muslims (C) they provided an occasion for the Christian pope to prove to his detractors that he had secular power throughout western Christendom / (D) they gave many western Europeans an opportunity to get closer to God (E) they provided an opportunity for the diffusion of technology, ideas, and warfare tactics 15. As a result of the fo;cible concentration of scholars initiated by Timur (A) most scholarship died because of the harsh conditions under which the scholars worked (B) scholars made some advances in math and science, but because the Muslims and the Timurids were nomads, nothing was written down (C) Greek scholarship in astronomy and mathematics continued CD) scholars were forced to work on scientific innovations, but because of their enslaved nature, scholars exaggerated much of their findings (E) scholars in Samarkand improved on Greek and Chinese ideas in astronomy and mathematics and also made many literary innovations Free-Response Questions 1. Compare the social and economic characteristics of the Muslim caliphates and the Mongols in the Middle East from 600 to 1450. 2. Evaluate the political changes and continuities over time in the Middle East from 600 to 1450. ANSWERS MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS' 1. ANSWER: E. The mamluks were originally purchased as slaves and eventually grew more powerful than the weakened Abbasid <caliphate and set up their own independent sultanates (The Earth and Its· Peoples, 4th ed., p. 224/5th ed., pp. 258-259). 2. ANSWER: C. The Quran is the holy book of Islam, believed to be the words of God, as given to Muhammad in Arabic, that were written down and organized formally by 650 (The Earth and Its Peoples, 4th ed., p. 220/5th ed., pp. 256, 258). (\;)2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. ~. / The Middle East: 600-1450 .:. 147 3. ANSWER: E. The word caliph means successor. The caliph could, lose political power if lacking military and political strength (The Earth and Its Peoples, 4th ed., p. 220/5th ed., p. 255). Muhammad left no instructions for leadership after his death and did not specify a form of government for the umma. This left room for debate over who should be in power and the nature of their rule (The Earth and Its Peoples, 4th ed., p: 221/5th ed., pp. 255-256). 4. ANSWER: D. The central tenet of Isla~ is submission to Allah and allowing his will to control all aspects of one's life. A Muslim is one who, submits (The Earth and Its Peoples, 4th ed., p. 219/5th ed., p. 255). 5. ANSWER: D. 6. ANSWER: E. The Seljuks were a nomadic Turkic group who gained power in the eleventh century after winning a battle against the Byzantine army (The Earth and Its Peoples, 4th ed., p. 226/5th ed., p. 262). ' 7. ANSWER: D. Women seldom traveled during this time period and were often seclMded in their homes. They covered themselves when outside the· home (The Earth and Its Peoples, 4th ed., p. 228/5th ed., pp. 267-268). 8. ANSWER: B. One of the most significant effects of Mongol rule was the spread of the, bubonic plague along the trade routes supported and stabilized by the Mongols in the fourteenth century .(The Earth and Its Peoples, 4th ed., p. 331/5th ed. p. 379). The Mongol khanates were positioned at either end of the Silk Road, and for a time their khanate in Central Asia controlled the middle portion as well. After Timur's conquest, powerful kingdoms such as the Timurids controlled key cities along the trade route such as Samarkand (The Earth and Its Peoples, 4th ed., p. 333/5th ed., pp. 378379). 9. ANSWER: B. 10. ANSWER: E. Timur was a Turk who wanted to be one of the great khans. Because he was not ethnically. a Mongol he never became a khan, but he was able to take significant territory in the Middle East for a short period, and he encouraged the preservation and spread of Muslim knowledge and culture (The Earth and Its Peoples, 4th ed., p. 333/5th ed., p. 381). 11. ANSWER: C. Although the Arabian peninsula is certainly arid in many places, there are many coastal cities, and agriculture is the dominant economic activity in the, southern portion of the peninsula that is today called Yemen (The Earth and Its Peoples, 4th ed., pp. 216218/5th ed., p. 228). \"'--"" , 12. ANSWER: D. Although' its original speakers were relatively few in numbers, the fact that the Quran was written and recited in Arabic made this the universal language of the rapidly expanding empire. Other languages, like Persian, continued their regional importance (The Earth and Its Peoples, 4th ed., p. 22.1/5th ed., p. 233). ©20 11 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 148 .:. Chapter 7 13. ANSWER: A. The Muslim empire, also known as· Dar-al-Islam, was the world's first Afro-Eurasian empire. It was. large, very diverse, and quickly fragmented into multiple smaller areas nominally controlled by the caliph (The Earth and Its Peoples, 4th ed., p. 22115th ed., pp. 232-233). 14. ANSWER: E. Although western Cl;J.ristiansconsidered the Crusades a holy war and established a Christian presence in Jerusalem for about a century, the true significance of the series of wars was how exposure to new plants, technology, architecture, and medicine affected Europe (The Earth and Its Peoples, 4th ed., pp. 215-216/5th ed., p. 277). 15. ANSWER: E. Like the Mongols and even the Arab Muslim conquerors before him, Timur promoted scholarship. In his capital, Isfahan, the concentrated scholars he accumulated made great strides in mathematics· and astronomy, as well as history and literature (The Earth and Its Peoples, 4th ed., p. 385/5th ed., p. 367). FREE-RESPONSE QUESTIONS 1. FOR this essay you should include a comparison of treatment of conquered peoples, religious practices, and cultural contributions. Cultural contributions could also be considered in a comparative analysis ·of the role of trade and cities in both empires as part of economic characteristics. Another economic comparison could also be drawn between the unsuccessful attempts by the Mongol II-khans to incorporate paper money and tax farming (an economic policy used earlier in the Middle East) and the Abbasid caliphate's economic practices. The use of paper money by the Mongol~ is in contrast with the Abbasid caliphate's continuation of coinage. 2. This essay calls for a discussion of both change and continuity as it relates to' the caliphate and the khanate as political systems. The caliphate's inability to control a large territory effectively resulted in provinces breaking away and establishing their own caliphates. This changed when the Mongols' came in and practiced varying degrees of local political autonomy while still maintaining overall political authority. The Mongols didn't attempt to rule the Middle East as part of one huge empire but established a separate political khanate under the II-khans. Abbasid reliance on the mamluks to enforce their, authority militarily became a continuity in the region because Mongol presence also forced Turkic groups such as the mamluks and the Ottomans to grow in political strength. The Ottomans would eventually come to dominate the Midd)e Eas't entirely. ©20 I I Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. /