* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Download IV - Fountainhead Press
Survey
Document related concepts
Old English grammar wikipedia , lookup
Kannada grammar wikipedia , lookup
Polish grammar wikipedia , lookup
Arabic grammar wikipedia , lookup
Modern Greek grammar wikipedia , lookup
Latin syntax wikipedia , lookup
Antisymmetry wikipedia , lookup
Pipil grammar wikipedia , lookup
Chinese grammar wikipedia , lookup
American Sign Language grammar wikipedia , lookup
French grammar wikipedia , lookup
Spanish grammar wikipedia , lookup
Sloppy identity wikipedia , lookup
Esperanto grammar wikipedia , lookup
English clause syntax wikipedia , lookup
Transcript
The Complex Sentence The complex sentence ss 31a ea d P re Another way to add variety to your writing is to use subordination and modification to create complex sentences. A complex sentence consists of a simple sentence (also known as an independent clause) plus one or more dependent clauses. Fo un ta in h Dependent clauses, like independent clauses, contain a subject and predicate; however, whereas independent clauses can stand alone, dependent clauses are dependent or subordinate to an independent clause and must be attached to that independent clause to form a complete sentence. You can track most dependent clauses back to their independent counterparts, as in the set of sentences below. Independent clause Each letter in our alphabet is a sign. Independent clause Each letter in our alphabet gives us information about our language’s history and sound system. Complex sentence Because each letter in our alphabet is a Dependent Clause sign, it gives us information about our language’s history and sound system. Independent Clause Note that the dependent clause above includes the subordinator “because” at the beginning of the clause. A dependent clause usually begins with a subordinator—also called a subordinating conjunction—or a relative pronoun. A subordinator or relative pronoun gives information about the relationship between the independent and dependent clause. 187 IV Sentence Level: Basic Grammar Common subordinators Relative pronouns Cause because, since, as if, why that what whatever which whichever who whoever whom whomever whose Concession although, even though, certainly, though Condition if, unless, how, rather than, where, whether Effect so that, in order that Place where ss Sequence after, before, while, until Dependent clauses h 31b ea d P re Time when, as, until, once un ta in Dependent clauses can be nominal (used like nouns), adjectival (used like adjectives), or adverbial (used like adverbs). This means that dependent clauses can be used as subjects, objects, or modifiers. Although it is sometimes difficult to distinguish which type of dependent clause is being used, it is a good idea to learn the different clause types because your choice of punctuation depends on how a clause is being used. Fo 188 31c Noun (or nominal) clauses Dependent noun clauses can function as subjects, direct objects, subject complements, objects of prepositions, or appositives. Since these types of clauses are dependent or subordinate, they are always attached to an independent clause or a critical part of an independent clause. Noun clauses usually begin with a relative pronoun or with one of these subordinators: when, where, how, why or whether. There are two types of noun clauses: nominal relative clauses and appositive clauses. The Complex Sentence 31 1. Nominal relative clauses Nominal relative clauses take the place of a subject, direct object, or an object of a preposition. A good way to see whether you are using a nominal relative clause is to see if you can substitute a pronoun (it, she, he) for the clause in question. In place of a subject What sounds a letter makes is complicated. Dependent Clause/ Nominal Relative Clause ea d P re ss In place of a direct object For new language learners, it is sometimes difficult to know which letter represents a particular sound. Dependent Clause/ Nominal Relative Clause In place of a subject complement This alphabet disconnection is why many linguists suggest changing our alphabet. Dependent Clause/Nominal Relative Clause ta in h In place of an object of the preposition Many linguists theorize about when the alphabet will become more transparent. Dependent Clause/Nominal Relative Clause un 2. Appositive clauses Fo Appositive clauses follow nouns that are general or abstract in nature, such as a theory, reason, fact, or story. The appositive clause begins with a “that” and provides more information about the abstract noun. The alphabet disconnection theory that letters do not clearly Dependent Clause/ match sounds is widely known by linguists. Appositive Clause It is important to be able to distinguish these dependent clauses as noun clauses because neither one of these dependent noun clauses requires a comma. Putting a comma around these clauses to highlight them or separate them in some way from the independent clause is a comma error. 189 IV Sentence Level: Basic Grammar EXERCISE 1 Directions: Underline the noun clauses in the following sentences, and then label the types of noun clauses. Example: This section contradicted my belief that you should use a comma with all noun clauses. (appositive clause) 1. The assumption that English is the most difficult language to learn has not been proven. 2. What we know about learning English is only a small piece of the language puzzle. ss 3. Linguists know that many languages are learned in similar ways. P re 4. Some people seem to like the idea that English is difficult for others to learn. in Adjective (or adjectival) clauses ta 31d h ea d 5. However, this so-called reason is why some non-English speakers give up on learning English. un Adjective clauses, another type of dependent or subordinate clause, modify noun phrases, which can be made up of either nouns or pronouns. There are two types of adjective clauses: the comparative clause and the relative clause. Fo 190 1. Comparative clauses Comparative clauses compare two noun phrases and use the phrase as XXX as to make the comparison, where XXX is filled in with an adjective. The clause to the left of the as XXX as phrase is the beginning of the independent clause, and the clause to the right of the as XXX as phrase is the dependent clause. ÎÎThat sign is as uninformative as the one I saw at the zoo last week. Dependent Clause ÎÎShe is as tall as the sign is. Dependent Clause The Complex Sentence 31 2. Relative clauses Relative clauses, the most common type of dependent clause, are used to modify or give more information about the noun phrase to the clause’s left. These clauses usually begin with a relative pronoun, such as that, which, who, whom, or whose. ÎÎHighway signs that are funny often defeat the purpose of their warning. Relative Clause ss ÎÎThe student who is signing for the deaf audience is obviously Relative Clause still learning American Sign Language. P re ÎÎThe highway workers whose job it was to paint the new sign forgot the paint. Relative Clause ea d Relative pronouns can sometimes be dropped if they can be understood to be part of the relative clause. un ta in h ÎÎThe signs [that] the highway workers need to paint are the Relative Clause ones [that] taggers have covered with graffiti. Relative Clause Fo Relative clauses can be essential or necessary for the full meaning of the sentence to be understood, or they can be non-essential. An essential relative clause is described as a restrictive relative clause. Restrictive relative clauses never take commas around the clause. ÎÎHighway signs that are covered in mud Restrictive Relative Clause can cause accidents. In the sentence above, ALL highway signs do not cause accidents; only highway signs that are covered in mud can cause them. Thus, the relative clause is essential to understand the meaning of the full sentence. 191 IV Sentence Level: Basic Grammar ÎÎThe architect who designed the building has a plaque with his Restrictive Relative Clause name on it near the front. Likewise, in the sentence above, it is only the architect who designed the building who has a plaque, not just any architect. Therefore, this relative clause is also essential to the sentence. A relative clause that is not essential to understand the full meaning of the sentence is described as a non-restrictive relative clause. Nonrestrictive relative clauses always take commas around the clause. ss ÎÎThe signs along Route 66, which are often stolen, classify Non-Restrictive Relative Clause it as a national monument. in h ea d P re In the sentence above, the relative clause is not essential for us to understand the meaning of the main sentence. In the relative clause, we get extra or nonessential information. With or without the relative clause, we still understand that the signs along Route 66 label it as a national monument. un ta ÎÎThe architect, who wore a seersucker suit to the ceremony, was Non-Restrictive Relative Clause awarded a plaque. Likewise, in the above sentence, the relative clause is not essential. Whether he wore a seersucker or wool suit is not important; the architect would still have been awarded the plaque either way. Fo 192 EXERCISE 2 Directions: Underline the relative clauses in the following sentences. Example: Language learners who study their new language in school usually do not speak any better than those who learn their new language through immersion. 1. When living in a language’s culture, you can learn more than just the vocabulary that is introduced in a textbook. The Complex Sentence 31 2. Many language learners who live outside their native country find themselves learning new vocabulary from another language quickly. 3. The younger that a language learner is, the more chance she has of learning a new language. 4. Language textbooks, which are often published by a variety of publishers, can only get you so far into your new language. Adverb (or adverbial) clauses re 31e ss 5. It is a good idea to stay as long as you can in the country of the language that you are learning. ta in h ea d P Adverbial clauses begin with a subordinator (sometimes called a subordinating conjunction) and usually give information about cause/reason, concession, condition, effect, place, sequence, and time. The clauses do this by answering the questions when? where? why? how? how frequently? and in what manner? Adverbial clauses are always dependent or subordinate to the main or independent clause. Fo un Common subordinators Cause because, since, as if, why Concession although, even though, certainly, though Condition if, unless, how, rather than, where, whether Effect so that, in order that Place where Sequence after, before, while, until Time when, as, until, once 193 IV Sentence Level: Basic Grammar ÎÎBecause she was caught with the freeway sign in her car, she Adverbial (Dependent) Clause was arrested for theft. Notice that the adverbial clause above gives the reason why the woman was arrested, thus giving information about cause. Adverbial clauses can function like adverbs, moving to various points in a sentence. When an adverbial clause is at the beginning of the sentence, use a comma to separate it off from the main or independent clause. ss ÎÎBecause the highway trooper watched him Adverbial Clause closely, the driver followed the detour sign. P re When an adverbial clause appears in the middle of a sentence, you should also set it off by placing commas around the adverbial clause. h ea d ÎÎThe driver, because the highway trooper Adverbial Clause watched him closely, followed the detour sign. ta in However, when an adverbial clause appears at the end of a sentence, it usually does not take a comma. un ÎÎThe driver followed the detour sign because the highway Adverbial Clause trooper watched him closely. Fo 194 EXERCISE 3 Directions: Underline the adverbial clauses in the following sentences, and circle the subordinator. Example: You usually do not need a travel guide when you travel in your own neighborhood. 1. When you travel to a foreign country, it is a good idea to bring a travel guide. The Complex Sentence 31 2. Although travel guides can be helpful, they cannot get you out of complicated situations. 3. If you do find yourself with a serious problem in a foreign country, you should check if there is an embassy located near you. 4. Finding an embassy is a good idea, so that you feel more secure when dealing with the problem. re Common sentence errors with the complex sentence 1. Check for fragments ea d P 31f ss 5. While embassy employees can usually help you with serious problems, they cannot provide a translator for you for everyday use. Fo un ta in h Dependent clauses do not express a complete thought, and they need to be attached to an independent clause to be grammatically complete. Because dependent clauses are clauses, they contain a subject and a full verb, a fact that sometimes leads a writer to use a dependent clause as a complete sentence. When dependent clauses are presented as a full sentence, they are fragments. Fragment Because the highway trooper watched him closely. Dependent Clause OK The driver took the detour because the highway trooper watched him closely. Dependent Clause Fragment When she saw the tornado. Dependent Clause OK When she saw the tornado, she took it as a sign to take cover. Dependent Clause 195 IV Sentence Level: Basic Grammar EXERCISE 4 Directions: Identify six fragments in the following paragraph, and change them into grammatically correct sentences. h ea d P re ss Our office was chosen to design the latest advertising campaign. For an internationally known sporting goods company. They’ve specifically requested a series of promotional billboards. Which will be displayed along highways in major cities. Because of the company’s high profile. Our focus and dedication to the project is of the utmost importance, and we’ve also been told to keep the details of the project a secret. This advertising campaign will bring a significant amount of revenue to our relatively small company, so my boss has told me. That he will be creating a new administrative position. Will be filled by an internal promotion. The promotion, however, will be contingent upon the success of this latest campaign. With this information, the office is dedicated to not only satisfying our client, but also excelling in this project. To ensure our boss promotes one of the many qualified, hard-working employees in the office. un ta in Source= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/7292252.stm 2. Check for unnecessary commas Fo 196 A noun clause can replace a subject, direct object, subject complement, or object of a preposition. When using a noun clause to replace these items, avoid placing an unnecessary comma between the noun clause and the rest of the sentence. Extra comma What I like about Saturdays, is seeing all the Dependent Noun Clause yard sale signs in my neighborhood. OK What I like about Saturdays is seeing all the yard sale Dependent Noun Clause signs in my neighborhood. The Complex Sentence 31 3. Check for restrictive or non-restrictive punctuation Be sure to use the correct punctuation for relative clauses. When they provide essential information, they are restrictive and should not have commas. When relative clauses provide non-essential or extra information, they are non-restrictive and should always be separated from the rest of the sentence with commas. Extra commas The protester, who had the derogatory sign, was removed from the lecture. Restrictive Relative Clause OK The protester who had the derogatory sign was removed from the lecture. Restrictive Relative Clause re ss In the above example, the relative clause gives necessary information— the reason the protester was removed from the lecture. Therefore, the relative clause is restrictive and does not take commas. in h ea d P Missing commas M. Night Shyamalan who directed Sixth Non-Restrictive Sense and Signs has not won an Academy Award. Relative Clause un ta OK M. Night Shyamalan, who directed Sixth Sense and Non-Restrictive Relative Clause Signs, has not won an Academy Award. Fo In the example above, the information that Shyamalan directed the movies Sixth Sense and Signs is not essential to the main point that he has not won an Academy Award. Thus, the relative clause is non-restrictive and needs to have commas surrounding it. 4. Check for adverbial clause punctuation When including an adverbial clause in your writing, be sure to use the appropriate punctuation. If the clause appears at the beginning of the sentence, use a comma between it and the independent clause. If the adverbial clause appears in the middle of the sentence, surround the clause with commas. And, finally, if the adverbial clause appears at the end of the sentence, do not separate the dependent adverbial clause and the independent clause. 197 IV Sentence Level: Basic Grammar Missing comma As I left the movie I saw a sign advertising Dependent Clause next week’s feature. OKAs I left the movie, I saw a sign advertising next week’s Dependent Clause feature. Extra comma I saw a sign advertising next week’s feature, as I left the movie. Dependent Clause ss OK I saw a sign advertising next week’s feature as I left the movie. Dependent Clause un ta in h ea d P re Fo 198