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SENTENCES AND SENTENCE STRUCTURE T. Reawadee Angchuan bor The dow n h neig because often who wer e ! Oh The nature of grammatical units The essence of grammatical units is that they are meaningful and combine with each other in systematic ways. We may distinguish a hierarchy of units as shown below: discourse (sentence) If I wash up all this stuff somebody else can dry it clause phrase If I wash up all this stuff somebody else can dry it If I wash up all this stuff somebody else can dry it If I wash up all this stuff somebody else can dry it word morpheme If I wash up all this stuff some body else can dry it phoneme/grapheme What is a sentence? To make a sentence you need to know FOUR things: 1. A sentence is a group of words that makes sense on its own. Cheese car house table on Tuesday. This isn't a sentence - it doesn't make sense. I parked my car next to my house. This is a sentence. You can understand what it means. It makes sense on its own. 2. When you are writing you need to use the right sentence punctuation. Using punctuation will show the person who is reading your writing where the sentences begin and end. • A sentence must begin with a capital letter. • A sentence must end with a full-stop (.), a question mark (?), or an exclamation mark (!). BEWARE! Sometimes people confuse the punctuation to use at the end of a sentence. You can use commas (,), colons (:) or semicolons (;) in your writing, but they should never be used instead of a full-stop. 3. A sentence also needs AT LEAST two kinds of words in it: • A sentence must have a VERB (a doing word). e.g. like, is, were cooking, walked, need, has gone • A sentence must also have a SUBJECT. This is the person, or the thing, that is doing the verb. e.g. I, Somchai, Tuesday, a dog, you, people, the weather Here are some examples of sentences that show you the verbs and the subjects: Last week Peggy redecorated the pub. Are you hungry yet? Martin, be quiet. Tuesday was very rainy and cold. 4. Objects and complements: • Sentences can exist with only a subject and a verb, although very often they contain a third part. • If the verb in a sentence is an action word (e.g. hit, eat, redecorate), then the ‘thing’ that receives the action, or is affected by it, is called the object of the sentence. Peggy redecorated the pub (object). NOTE: It is possible to have more than one object. However: • If the verb in a sentence is one that denotes a state (how something is) rather than an action word, then this type of verb is known as a linking or copula verb. Examples are: be, seem, appear, become, look (as in appear). • In sentences which contain this type of verb, there is no object which receives an action. Instead, this other part ‘describes’ the subject: Tuesday was very rainy and cold. He looks ill. John is a doctor. This ‘describing part’, or object equivalent, is called a subject complement or complement. It is useful to know the difference between an object and a complement. Other things to know about sentences: Sentences can be very short, or very long. There is no correct number of words that should be in a sentence. The length of the sentence depends on what you want to say and the effect you want to get. BEWARE! If your sentences go on for many lines, make sure that you haven't really put several sentences together as one sentence. It's important to remember that you don't always need to write in sentences. For example, a shopping list doesn't need sentences, but a job application letter does. In Summary A sentence is a complete unit of language that, in context, makes sense on its own. Parts of A Sentence A sentence usually has a subject (what the sentence is about) and a predicate (the part of the sentence which gives information about the subject). Exercise 1 Identify the subject and predicate in each of the following. 1. James drove to Scotland. 2. Suddenly, the lightning struck the steeple. 3. This sentence contains a verb. 4. The merchant bought six dozen shirts. 5. Marc is a fine artist. 6. Sheila is painting her house today. 7. John and Angela believed their story. 8. After the lecture, the students walked to the library. 9. Before the concert, the singers had three practice sessions. 10. The house on the corner was built by Jacques Dumont. Complete and Simple Subjects and Predicates The main word or word group that tells whom or what the sentence is about is called the simple subject. The simple predicate, or verb, is the main word or word group that tells something about the subject. The complete subject consists of the simple subject and any words, phrases, or clauses that modify the simple subject. The complete predicate consists of a verb and all the words that describe the verb and complete its meaning. simple subject simple predicate SENTENCE: I have been reading a collection of her stories. SIMPLE PREDICATE: have been reading [verb phrase] COMPLETE PREDICATE: have been reading a collection of her stories The two large dogs raced quickly across the open field. dogs = simple subject The two large dogs = complete subject raced = simple predicate raced quickly across the open field = complete predicate simple subject The blue sports car with the big engine // complete subject simple predicate must have crashed after the turn. complete predicate Exercise 2 Underline the simple subject once, the simple predicate twice, and place a double slash (//) between the complete subject and the complete predicate. Examples: My friends // are shopping at the mall this afternoon. 1. The market opens early on Saturdays. 2. Everyone in the restaurant heard her loud voice. 3. Television programs are worse than ever. 4. Each department in the store must be decorated for Easter. 5. I paid a visit to Grand Mayan last August. 6. My son had a great deal of homework last night. 7. January is often the coldest month of the year. 8. Three beautiful packages lay under the tree. 9. An experienced pilot landed the plane in the fog. 10. Sandy's class discussed energy conservation last spring. COMPOUND SUBJECTS AND PREDICATES The boat and its crew docked in the Bahamas yesterday. King Avenue and Front Street are under construction. When there are two or more subjects in a sentence, joined by a conjunction, the sentence is said to have a compound subject. A sentence can also have a compound predicate, as in the next example. The car bumped and rattled its way along King Avenue. The two large dogs and their master / raced across the field and caught the rabbit. This sentence has a compound subject and a compound predicate. In other words, the simple subjects (dogs, master) both performed the actions of the simple predicate (raced, caught). Complete Subject: The two large dogs and their master Complete Predicate: raced across the field and caught the rabbit. Simple Subject: dogs, master Simple Predicate: raced, caught Exercise 3 Identify the simple subject and indicate whether it is a simple or compound. 1. Dogs and cats are rarely good friends. 2. The band and its leader boarded the bus at 9:30 and left for Moncton. 3. His letter of resignation will not reach you before Tuesday or Wednesday. 4. Either his old car or their newest truck will be at the auction. 5. The tiniest bits of gossip in this town are turned into public announcements. 6. Alex and his sister were sitting in the café and talking about their troubles. 7. The clowns jumped out of cars and ran through sprinklers. 8. Suddenly, rain and hail poured out of the sky. 9. The man from the marina laughed and talked about all his experiences at sea. 10. Uncle Al and his wife packed their things and left town. Finding the Subject The subject of a sentence is never in a prepositional phrase. EXAMPLE Three of the animals are at the watering hole. [Three is the subject. Animals is the object of the preposition of]. Questions often begin with a verb, a helping verb, or a word such as what, when, where, which, how, or why. The subject of a question may follow the verb or may come between the helping verb and the main verb. EXAMPLE In which country does the largest herd live? [The subject herd comes between the helping verb does and the main verb live.] The word ‘there’ or ‘here’ is almost never the subject of a sentence. To find the subject, ask ‘Who?’ or ‘What’ before the verb. EXAMPLE There are two species of African rhinoceros. [What are? Species are.] Exercise 4 Identify the subject and predicate (verb) in each of these sentences. Ex: The herd (of cows) was grazing in the pasture. subject - herd predicate - was grazing of cows is a prepositional adjective phrase telling what kind of herd 1. The chief of that department issued a statement. 2. The smell of the lilacs in the spring is overpowering. 3. The box on the table is full of apples. 4. Each of his friends expressed an opinion. 5. Circumstances beyond our control forced our actions. 6. The dishes in the sink are dirty. 7. The loud, cracking sounds from the mill have gotten worse during the years. 8. Each one of their attempts had failed. 9. Did the man on the roof finish the shingles before lunch? 10. Has the parcel from the West Indies arrived yet? What language units make up subjects? SUBJECT (PREDICATE) A NOUN Kim (came to visit me). A NOUN GROUP Hotel Splendid in (is seven storeys high). Canberra A PRONOUN It (isn’t as tall as some other hotels). A DETERMINER This (is my last word on the matter). A NOUN PHRASE That book (put me to sleep). A NOUN CLAUSE What you see (is what you get). AN -ING FORM Swimming in the sea (is fun). AN INFINITIVE To swim in the sea (is fun). The Understood Subject In a request or command, the subject of a sentence is usually not stated. You is the understood subject, even when the request or command includes a noun of direct address, a name that identifies the person spoken to or addressed. EXAMPLE: [You] Take this to the principal’s office, please. [You] Do your homework now, María. Please read the first question aloud, Tony. [Who is to read? You is the understood subject; Tony is a noun of direct address.] What language units make up predicates? Predicates can contain one or more of the following. 1. A VERB OR A VERB GROUP - (in bold below) - as the predicate headword, which may or may not accompanied by a modifier. The modifier of a verb is an adverb, and adverb phrase or an adverb clause. SUBJECT PREDICATE (They) were playing happily. (They) have been playing all day long. (They) played till it was late. 2. A COMPLETION - that is: (A) an object or (B) a complement or (C) both an object and a complement. (A). AN OBJECT, if the verb is transitive. The headword of an object is a noun or a noun phrase, and it may or may not be accompanied by a modifier. The transitive verbs below are in bold; the headwords of the objects are in underline; their modifiers are in italic. SUBJECT PREDICATE (They) did a good job. (They) have found the home of their dreams. (They) ate a lovely meal. (B). A COMPLEMENT - if the verb is linking. The headword of a complement is a noun or a noun phrase, an adjective, an adverb or a verb - any of which may or may not be accompanied by a modifier. SUBJECT PREDICATE (They) were the captains of their school. (They) appeared very happy. (They) are here. (They) is music composed by dead foreigners. (C). OBJECT + COMPLEMENT COMPLETIONS SUBJECT PREDICATE (They) ordered me object to leave at once. complement (They) made me object sing. complement COMPLEMENTS - “things which make something else complete” Within the complete predicate you may find some of the following parts. 1. direct object 2. indirect object 3. predicate nominative 4. predicate adjective 5. simple adverbs 6. prepositional phrases 7. clauses Remember that a sentence has two basic parts: complete subject and complete predicate. The parts of the sentence listed above are considered to be sub-sections of the complete predicate. 1. Direct objects are nouns or pronouns which complete the meaning of an action verb. They answer the reader’s questions about Whom? What? received the action of the verb. Len mailed his cheque. The action (verb) in the sentence is ?..............mailed. Who? or What? mailed a letter?....................Len - Len is the subject Len mailed whom? what?................................letter - letter is the direct object Direct objects NEVER answer the questions when, where, or how. 2. Indirect objects always come between action verbs and direct objects. Turn the word you think might be an indirect object into a prepositional phrase (starting with to, for, and sometimes of) and move it to the end of the sentence. If the sentence still makes sense, you have found the indirect object. Our office sent the client a special delivery letter. Our office sent a special delivery letter (to the client). Have you charged them the right amount? Have you charged the right amount (to them)? His determination earned him a million dollars. His determination earned a million dollars (for him). Shirley asked us a question. Shirley asked a question (of us). Indirect objects are nouns/pronouns which complete the meaning of an action verb They answer the reader’s questions about To whom? For whom? Of whom? Only a few verbs allow direct and indirect objects: give, take, offer, tell, show, bring, make, send, sell, etc. Exercise 5 Identify the the direct and indirect objects in the sentences below. 1. The committee offered Rebecca a better job. 2. Give them your new address. 3. Did you offer me the very best deal? 4. Mark laid the unconscious dog on the mat. 5. The post office sent him a change of address card. 6. Jack gave the tiny bear cub a dish of milk. 7. They sliced me some turkey. 8. Sean gave the car a second coat of wax. 9. His invention made him a fortune. 10. Her brother bought her an ice cream cone before he left. 3. Predicate Nominatives Sentences constructed with linking verbs contain a special kind of complement. These complements occur only after linking verbs. If a noun/pronoun completes the meaning of the linking verb, it is called a predicate nominative. My sister became a teacher. In formal writing, a personal pronoun which follows a linking verb must be in the subjective (nominative case) It was I who made that policy decision. In conversation and informal writing, it is more common to say, Who’s there? It’s me. or It’s them. 4. Predicate Adjectives When an adjective completes the meaning of a linking verb, it is called a predicate adjective. My sister felt happy about her new job. The clouds grew dark because of the storm. Those cinnamon rolls smell delicious. The learners never became discouraged. Exercise 6 Find the predicate nominatives and predicate adjectives in the following sentences. Be sure to label each one you find. Some sentences may not contain predicate nominatives or predicate adjectives. 1. My uncle is fireman in Moncton. 2. Suddenly, he felt sick. 3. Jennifer quickly became disgusted with their behaviour. 4. The pitcher threw the ball to first base. 5. The boss was being unreasonable in his demands on his staff. 6. Were you ever a dancer? 7. They had never been content with their jobs. 8. The sky grew dark and cloudy. 9. Marilyn is my niece. 10. His smile was always his best feature. 5. Adverbs Adverbs (words that that tell when, where, why, how, how much or how many) are also included in the complement, regardless of where they are placed in the sentence. We answered their questions quickly. Soon, winter will arrive. We ordered pizza later. Their cheques arrived yesterday.* Thursday*, Meagan has a dentist’s appointment. Luckily, they bought their concert tickets last week*. *In the last three sentences, the words yesterday, Thursday, and last week are considered to be adverbs even though they look like nouns. Words like meanwhile, then, however, therefore are adverbs which should be placed in the middle of a sentence. We will, therefore, donate this money to charity. The committee will, however, announce its decision tomorrow. When these words are used as adverbs, they are usually set off by commas. 6. Phrases A phrase is a group of related words used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. It does not contain a subject and a verb in combination. Most phrases consist of a preposition plus a noun or pronoun (and modifiers). Consider the following examples of phrases: 1. Verb phrase: is, can find, is becoming, doesn’t have, comes, has been growing 2. Noun phrase: the Internet, a computer, information, such global friendships 3. Verbal phrase (gerund, infinitive, participle): watching the program, to match the contribution, flight ticketing and checking-in 4. Prepositional phrase: at any time, of the earth, from his home (a preposition + noun phrase.) 7. Clauses A clause is part of a sentence that contains a complete subject and a complete predicate (what the subject says or does or what is done to it.) The two types of clauses are: 1. Independent clauses* The player caught the ball in his glove. The sentence is an independent clause because it contains a subject, player, and a predicate (verb) caught, and it expresses a complete thought. 2. Dependent (subordinate) clauses Although the sun was in his eyes The clause above contains a subject and verb but do not express a complete thought. When you read it, you feel that some information is missing. It is not a complete idea. * Some textbooks call those main clauses or principle clauses. Exercise 7 Look at the portion of each sentence written in italics. Tell if the italicized words form a clause (C) or a phrase (P) by writing the appropriate letter in the blank. Hint: It may be helpful to find the subjects and verbs first. Example: P The library does not open until ten o'clock. ____ 1. During his term in office, the mayor made many mistakes. ____ 2. The man ran five miles in thirty minutes. ____ 3. The car which was found behind the store had been abandoned. ____ 4. After the concert, fans waited by the stage door. ____ 5. As a special reward, we took the children for ice cream. ____ 6. Eventually, after a long wait, we boarded the train. ____ 7. Please close the door when you leave. ____ 8. My grandmother was ninety years old when she made that quilt. ____ 9. As we sat down to dinner, the telephone rang. ____ 10. I feel sure that there is no reason for your anxiety. ____ 11. Since Charles has finished his work, he can go home before you do. ____ 12. The workmen that we hired washed the walls of the living room. ____ 13. Because of the delay, we will be late for the meeting. ____ 14. Did you know that those maps cost $5.00? ____ 15. Many people believed that he was a great musician. Example: Find the complete sentences. A.!Letter written by famous poets. B.!Children imitate their parents. C.!Beef costs even than chicken. D.!A person traveling in foreign countries. Direction: Which are the complete sentences in the following sets? 1)! a. Few city people keep their cars in garages. ! b. Some builders installing solar energy. ! c. That bank charges high interest on loans. 2)! a. The shopkeeper’s wife reading a movie magazine. ! b. Drivers in the U.S. carry a special kind of insurance. ! c. The wedding party left the church in a black limousine. 3)! a. Dozens of eggs broken on the long trip from the farm. ! b. Expensive advertising defeated some of the candidates. ! c. Tragic accidents decrease the volume of air traffic. 4)! a. Birds migrate the warmer climates during the autumn months. ! b. A number of requests from members taken into consideration. ! c. The new commissioner outlined his program to reporters. Phrases and clauses: strings of words, but not quite sentences Both phrases and clauses are meaningful strings of words - more than single words, but less than whole sentences. How are phrases and clauses similar? Both phrases and clauses are building blocks of sentences. i Two mutations [PHRASE] ii in a human language gene [PHRASE] iii have been selected [VERB GROUP] iv for over the past 200,000 years, [PHRASE] v according to new research [PHRASE] Two mutations in a human language gene have been selected for over the past 200,000 years, according to new research. (James Randerson in New Scientist, 14/08/2002) Both phrases and clauses can function as nouns, adjectives and adverbs. I saw Braveheart. noun I saw a good movie. noun phrase I saw what I wanted to see. noun clause Both phrases and clauses can function as nouns, adjectives and adverbs. I have a helpful friend. adjective I have a friend, always willing to help. adjective phrase I have a friend who is always helpful. adjective clause Both phrases and clauses can function as nouns, adjectives and adverbs. I left early. adverb I left at sunrise. adverb phrase I left when the sun rose. adverb clause How do phrases and clauses differ? • The main difference between clauses and phrases is that every clause contains a finite verb while no phrase does. ... it remained a matter of considerable doubt ... [CLAUSE WITH A FINITE VERB] ... in a human language gene ... [PHRASE WITHOUT A FINITE VERB] How do phrases and clauses differ? • Phrases are usually shorter and closer to words. Clauses are usually longer and closer to whole sentences. It is often easy to replace a phrase with a single word. I was at a performance of rock music [ --> concert]. PHRASE WORD The music was at a hight volume [-----> loud]. PHRASE WORD How do phrases and clauses differ? It is often easy to replace a clause with a whole sentence. If you help me, I will help you. CLAUSE CLAUSE ----> [You help me. Then I will help you.] SENTENCE SENTENCE Types of Phrases ~ classified according to the part of speech of their main word 1. A prepositional phrase - consists of a preposition + its object (a noun, pronoun, or word group functional as a noun) and any modifiers. They usually function as adjectives or adverbs. After the hurricane [func. as adverb], the residents of the coastal towns [func. as adjective] returned to their homes [func. as adverb]. 2. Verbal Phrases - participial, infinitive, and gerund 2.1 A participial phrase - consists of a present or past participle and any objects or modifiers and functions as adjective. - Looking pleased with herself, the child curtsied after her recital. 2.2 An infinitive phrase - consists of an infinitive, and any objects or modifiers, can function as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns. - They want to know his secret. [noun] - The need to begin immediately should be obvious. [adj.] - We must work to increase our outreach. [adv.] 2.3 A gerund phrase - consists of a gerund and any objects or modifiers, always functions as a noun. - Preparing a term paper is a difficult task. [subject noun] - She liked writing with the computer. [a direct object noun] 3. A verb phrase - consists of a main verb and any helping verbs. - The cable company was collecting higher fees than it had been authorized to charge. 4. A noun phrase - consists of a noun and any modifiers. Many large universities use computers. Types of Clauses • Main Clause ( Independent Clause) - I saw a book. • Subordinate clause (Dependent Clause) A. Noun Clause: - I saw what was on the shelf. B. Adjective Clause: - I saw a book which was on the shelf. C. Adverb Clause: - I saw a book when I looked at the shelf. What are main clauses? 1. A main clause is a clause that - like and adult - can stand on its own. - I saw a book. MAIN CLAUSE 2. A main clause can also combine with another clause or clauses). - I know them but I don’t like them. MAIN CLAUSE - I ate MAIN CLAUSE when I was hungry. MAIN CLAUSE ADVERB CLAUSE What are subordinate clauses? Subordinate clauses are clauses that are joined to other clauses with subordinating conjunctions. It is like a child holding on to a parent (the main clause) by the hand. - I will do the dishes when I have finished watching the show. MAIN CLAUSE SUBORDINATE CLAUSE 1. There are three kinds of subordinate clauses noun clauses, adjective clauses, adverb clauses. 1. Main clause + noun clause: I saw what was on the shelf [object]. MAIN CLAUSE NOUN CLAUSE 2. Main clause + adjective clause: I saw a book which was on the shelf [modify ‘book]. MAIN CLAUSE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE 3. Main clause + adverb clause: I saw a book when I looked at the shelf [modify ‘saw’. MAIN CLAUSE ADVERB CLAUSE 2. Subordinate clauses can themselves have clauses that are subordinate to them - like someone with a child and a grandchild and a great grandchild. I saw a book MAIN CLAUSE when I looked at the shelf ADVERB CLAUSE which was in the room ADJECTIVE CLAUSE where I was sitting ADJECTIVE CLAUSE while you were out. ADVERB CLAUSE 3. You can join subordinate clauses to each other in parallel with coordinating conjunctions: I saw MAIN CLAUSE what was on the shelf and what I wanted. NOUN CLAUSE NOUN CLAUSE I saw your book MAIN CLAUSE which was on the shelf and which I needed. ADJECTIVE CLAUSE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE References and Useful websites Sally B.E., Geral J.A.. et. al. 2003. Writing from A to Z. Mc Graw Hill. USA George Stern. 2003. An Outline of English Grammar. Learners Publishing Pte Ltd. Singapore George Stern. 2001. Learners’ Grammar Dictionary. Learners Publishing Pte Ltd. Singapore Douglas B., Stig J., et. al. 1999. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Pearson Longman. China http://uwc.ttu.edu/Handbook/view.asp?id=SMH6_hyperlinkp06_c31 http://www.mrgieson.com/library/acrobats/8th_grammar_wkbk/p37thru40.pdf http://www.bbc.co.uk/skillswise/factsheet/en28conn-e2-f-joining-sentences http://www.mhschool.com/reading/treasure_workbooks/national/g4/grammar_pb.pdf http://www.mountainviewms.org/ourpages/auto/2010/8/25/42065987/L7UA01ED.PDF http://www.yale.edu/graduateschool/writing/forms/Types%20of%20Clauses.pdf http://www.csun.edu/~sk36711/WWW/engl400/phrases.pdf http://wps.ablongman.com/wps/media/objects/2943/3014081/LBCHB_PPT_TM/sentencesCh21-36.pdf http://www.education.com/study-help/article/sentence-structure2/ http://www.ilmoamal.org/bms/attachments/course_pics/7.transformation.picture.JPG http://www.callowayhouse.com/p/822/magnetic-sentence-building-set http://ell.stackexchange.com/questions/6359/understanding-a-passage-in-relationwith-clauses-and-phrases http://www.thewritingcodesystem.com/oll-buildingblocks/ http://www.graphiceducation.com.au/product.php?id_product=128 http://www.sophisticatededge.com/sample-performance-review-phrases1.html http://www.yale.edu/graduateschool/writing/forms/The%20Most%20Common %20Sentence%20Structure%20Problems.pdf http://gypsydaughteressays.blogspot.com/2015/04/sentence-diagramming-diagramming.html