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SENTENCES AND
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
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The nature of grammatical units
The essence of grammatical units is that they are meaningful and combine
with each other in systematic ways. We may distinguish a hierarchy of units as
shown below:
discourse
(sentence)
If I wash up all this stuff somebody else can dry it
clause
phrase
If I wash up all this stuff somebody else can dry it
If I wash up all this stuff somebody else can dry it
If I wash up all this stuff somebody else can dry it
word
morpheme If I wash up all this stuff some body else can dry it
phoneme/grapheme
What is a sentence?
To make a sentence you need to know FOUR things:
1. A sentence is a group of words that makes
sense on its own.
Cheese car house table on Tuesday.
This isn't a sentence - it doesn't make sense.
I parked my car next to my house.
This is a sentence. You can understand what it means.
It makes sense on its own.
2. When you are writing you need to use the
right sentence punctuation.
Using punctuation will show the person who is reading
your writing where the sentences begin and end.
• A sentence must begin with a capital letter.
• A sentence must end with a full-stop (.), a question
mark (?), or an exclamation mark (!).
BEWARE! Sometimes people confuse the
punctuation to use at the end of a sentence.
You can use commas (,), colons (:) or semicolons (;) in your
writing, but they should never be used instead of a full-stop.
3. A sentence also needs AT LEAST two kinds
of words in it:
• A sentence must have a VERB (a doing word).
e.g. like, is, were cooking, walked, need, has gone
• A sentence must also have a SUBJECT. This is the
person, or the thing, that is doing the verb.
e.g. I, Somchai, Tuesday, a dog, you, people, the weather
Here are some examples of sentences that show
you the verbs and the subjects:
Last week Peggy redecorated the pub.
Are you hungry yet?
Martin, be quiet.
Tuesday was very rainy and cold.
4. Objects and complements:
• Sentences can exist with only a subject and a verb,
although very often they contain a third part.
• If the verb in a sentence is an action word (e.g. hit, eat,
redecorate), then the ‘thing’ that receives the action, or
is affected by it, is called the object of the sentence.
Peggy redecorated the pub (object).
NOTE: It is possible to have more than one object.
However:
• If the verb in a sentence is one that denotes a state
(how something is) rather than an action word, then this
type of verb is known as a linking or copula verb.
Examples are: be, seem, appear, become, look (as in
appear).
• In sentences which contain this type of verb, there is no
object which receives an action. Instead, this other
part ‘describes’ the subject:
Tuesday was very rainy and cold.
He looks ill.
John is a doctor.
This ‘describing part’, or object equivalent, is called a
subject complement or complement. It is useful to
know the difference between an object and a
complement.
Other things to know about sentences:
Sentences can be very short, or very long. There is
no correct number of words that should be in a
sentence. The length of the sentence depends on
what you want to say and the effect you want to get.
BEWARE! If your sentences go on for many lines, make sure that you
haven't really put several sentences together as one sentence.
It's important to remember that you don't always need to write in
sentences. For example, a shopping list doesn't need sentences, but a job
application letter does.
In Summary
A sentence is a complete unit of
language that, in context,
makes sense on its own.
Parts of A Sentence
A sentence usually has a subject (what the sentence is
about) and a predicate (the part of the sentence
which gives information about the subject).
Exercise 1
Identify the subject and predicate in each of the following.
1. James drove to Scotland.
2. Suddenly, the lightning struck the steeple.
3. This sentence contains a verb.
4. The merchant bought six dozen shirts.
5. Marc is a fine artist.
6. Sheila is painting her house today.
7. John and Angela believed their story.
8. After the lecture, the students walked to the library.
9. Before the concert, the singers had three practice
sessions.
10. The house on the corner was built by Jacques Dumont.
Complete and Simple Subjects and Predicates
The main word or word group that tells whom or what the
sentence is about is called the simple subject.
The simple predicate, or verb, is the main word or word
group that tells something about the subject.
The complete subject consists of the simple subject and any
words, phrases, or clauses that modify the simple subject.
The complete predicate consists of a verb and all the words
that describe the verb and complete its meaning.
simple subject
simple predicate
SENTENCE:
I have been reading a collection of her stories.
SIMPLE PREDICATE:
have been reading [verb phrase]
COMPLETE PREDICATE:
have been reading a collection of her stories
The two large dogs raced quickly across the open field.
dogs
= simple subject
The two large dogs = complete subject
raced
= simple predicate
raced quickly across the open field = complete predicate
simple subject
The blue sports car with the big engine //
complete subject
simple predicate
must have crashed after the turn.
complete predicate
Exercise 2
Underline the simple subject once, the simple predicate twice, and
place a double slash (//) between the complete subject and the
complete predicate.
Examples: My friends // are shopping at the mall this afternoon.
1. The market opens early on Saturdays.
2. Everyone in the restaurant heard her loud voice.
3. Television programs are worse than ever.
4. Each department in the store must be decorated for Easter.
5. I paid a visit to Grand Mayan last August.
6. My son had a great deal of homework last night.
7. January is often the coldest month of the year.
8. Three beautiful packages lay under the tree.
9. An experienced pilot landed the plane in the fog.
10. Sandy's class discussed energy conservation last spring.
COMPOUND SUBJECTS AND PREDICATES
The boat and its crew docked in the Bahamas yesterday.
King Avenue and Front Street are under construction.
When there are two or more subjects in a sentence, joined by a
conjunction, the sentence is said to have a compound subject.
A sentence can also have a compound predicate, as in the next
example.
The car bumped and rattled its way along King Avenue.
The two large dogs and their master / raced across the field and
caught the rabbit.
This sentence has a compound subject and a compound predicate.
In other words, the simple subjects (dogs, master)
both performed the actions of the simple predicate (raced,
caught).
Complete Subject: The two large dogs and their master
Complete Predicate: raced across the field and caught the rabbit.
Simple Subject:
dogs, master
Simple Predicate: raced, caught
Exercise 3
Identify the simple subject and indicate whether it is a simple or
compound.
1. Dogs and cats are rarely good friends.
2. The band and its leader boarded the bus at 9:30 and left for Moncton.
3. His letter of resignation will not reach you before Tuesday or
Wednesday.
4. Either his old car or their newest truck will be at the auction.
5. The tiniest bits of gossip in this town are turned into public
announcements.
6. Alex and his sister were sitting in the café and talking about their
troubles.
7. The clowns jumped out of cars and ran through sprinklers.
8. Suddenly, rain and hail poured out of the sky.
9. The man from the marina laughed and talked about all his
experiences at sea.
10. Uncle Al and his wife packed their things and left town.
Finding the Subject
The subject of a sentence is never in a prepositional phrase.
EXAMPLE
Three of the animals are at the watering hole. [Three is
the subject. Animals is the object of the preposition of].
Questions often begin with a verb, a helping verb, or a word such as what,
when, where, which, how, or why. The subject of a question may
follow the verb or may come between the helping verb and the main verb.
EXAMPLE
In which country does the largest herd live? [The subject
herd comes between the helping verb does and the main verb
live.]
The word ‘there’ or ‘here’ is almost never the subject of a sentence. To find
the subject, ask ‘Who?’ or ‘What’ before the verb.
EXAMPLE There are two species of African rhinoceros. [What are?
Species are.]
Exercise 4
Identify the subject and predicate (verb) in each of these sentences.
Ex: The herd (of cows) was grazing in the pasture.
subject - herd
predicate - was grazing
of cows is a prepositional adjective phrase telling what kind of herd
1. The chief of that department issued a statement.
2. The smell of the lilacs in the spring is overpowering.
3. The box on the table is full of apples.
4. Each of his friends expressed an opinion.
5. Circumstances beyond our control forced our actions.
6. The dishes in the sink are dirty.
7. The loud, cracking sounds from the mill have gotten worse
during the years.
8. Each one of their attempts had failed.
9. Did the man on the roof finish the shingles before lunch?
10. Has the parcel from the West Indies arrived yet?
What language units make up subjects?
SUBJECT
(PREDICATE)
A NOUN
Kim
(came to visit me).
A NOUN GROUP
Hotel Splendid in
(is seven storeys high).
Canberra
A PRONOUN
It
(isn’t as tall as some
other hotels).
A DETERMINER
This
(is my last word on
the matter).
A NOUN PHRASE That book
(put me to sleep).
A NOUN CLAUSE What you see
(is what you get).
AN -ING FORM
Swimming in the sea (is fun).
AN INFINITIVE
To swim in the sea
(is fun).
The Understood Subject
In a request or command, the subject of a sentence is usually
not stated. You is the understood subject, even when the
request or command includes a noun of direct address, a name
that identifies the person spoken to or addressed.
EXAMPLE:
[You] Take this to the principal’s office, please.
[You] Do your homework now, María.
Please read the first question aloud, Tony.
[Who is to read? You is the understood subject; Tony is a
noun of direct address.]
What language units make up predicates?
Predicates can contain one or more of the following.
1. A VERB OR A VERB GROUP - (in bold
below) - as the predicate headword, which may or may
not accompanied by a modifier. The modifier of a verb
is an adverb, and adverb phrase or an adverb clause.
SUBJECT PREDICATE
(They)
were playing happily.
(They)
have been playing all day long.
(They)
played till it was late.
2. A COMPLETION - that is: (A) an object or (B) a
complement or (C) both an object and a complement.
(A). AN OBJECT, if the verb is transitive. The headword
of an object is a noun or a noun phrase, and it may or
may not be accompanied by a modifier. The transitive
verbs below are in bold; the headwords of the objects
are in underline; their modifiers are in italic.
SUBJECT PREDICATE
(They)
did
a good job.
(They)
have found
the home of their dreams.
(They)
ate
a lovely meal.
(B). A COMPLEMENT - if the verb is linking. The
headword of a complement is a noun or a noun
phrase, an adjective, an adverb or a verb - any of which
may or may not be accompanied by a modifier.
SUBJECT
PREDICATE
(They)
were
the captains of their school.
(They)
appeared
very happy.
(They)
are
here.
(They)
is
music composed by dead
foreigners.
(C). OBJECT + COMPLEMENT COMPLETIONS
SUBJECT PREDICATE
(They)
ordered
me
object
to leave at once.
complement
(They)
made
me
object
sing.
complement
COMPLEMENTS - “things which make something else complete”
Within the complete predicate you may find some of the
following parts.
1. direct object
2. indirect object
3. predicate nominative
4. predicate adjective
5. simple adverbs
6. prepositional phrases
7. clauses
Remember that a sentence has two basic parts: complete subject and
complete predicate. The parts of the sentence listed above are considered
to be sub-sections of the complete predicate.
1. Direct objects are nouns or pronouns which complete the meaning of
an action verb. They answer the reader’s questions about Whom?
What? received the action of the verb.
Len mailed his cheque.
The action (verb) in the sentence is ?..............mailed.
Who? or What? mailed a letter?....................Len - Len is the subject
Len mailed whom? what?................................letter - letter is the direct object
Direct objects NEVER answer the questions when, where, or how.
2. Indirect objects always come between action verbs and direct objects.
Turn the word you think might be an indirect object into a prepositional phrase (starting
with to, for, and sometimes of) and move it to the end of the sentence. If the sentence
still makes sense, you have found the indirect object.
Our office sent the client a special delivery letter.
Our office sent a special delivery letter (to the client).
Have you charged them the right amount?
Have you charged the right amount (to them)?
His determination earned him a million dollars.
His determination earned a million dollars (for him).
Shirley asked us a question.
Shirley asked a question (of us).
Indirect objects are nouns/pronouns which complete the meaning of an action verb
They answer the reader’s questions about To whom? For whom? Of whom?
Only a few verbs allow direct and indirect objects: give, take, offer, tell, show,
bring, make, send, sell, etc.
Exercise 5
Identify the the direct and indirect objects in the sentences below.
1. The committee offered Rebecca a better job.
2. Give them your new address.
3. Did you offer me the very best deal?
4. Mark laid the unconscious dog on the mat.
5. The post office sent him a change of address card.
6. Jack gave the tiny bear cub a dish of milk.
7. They sliced me some turkey.
8. Sean gave the car a second coat of wax.
9. His invention made him a fortune.
10. Her brother bought her an ice cream cone before he left.
3. Predicate Nominatives
Sentences constructed with linking verbs contain a special kind of
complement. These complements occur only after linking verbs.
If a noun/pronoun completes the meaning of the linking verb, it is
called a predicate nominative.
My sister became a teacher.
In formal writing, a personal pronoun which follows a linking verb
must be in the subjective (nominative case)
It was I who made that policy decision.
In conversation and informal writing, it is more common to say,
Who’s there? It’s me. or It’s them.
4. Predicate Adjectives
When an adjective completes the meaning of a linking verb, it is
called a predicate adjective.
My sister felt happy about her new job.
The clouds grew dark because of the storm.
Those cinnamon rolls smell delicious.
The learners never became discouraged.
Exercise 6
Find the predicate nominatives and predicate adjectives in the following
sentences. Be sure to label each one you find. Some sentences may not
contain predicate nominatives or predicate adjectives.
1. My uncle is fireman in Moncton.
2. Suddenly, he felt sick.
3. Jennifer quickly became disgusted with their behaviour.
4. The pitcher threw the ball to first base.
5. The boss was being unreasonable in his demands on his staff.
6. Were you ever a dancer?
7. They had never been content with their jobs.
8. The sky grew dark and cloudy.
9. Marilyn is my niece.
10. His smile was always his best feature.
5. Adverbs
Adverbs (words that that tell when, where, why, how, how much or how
many) are also included in the complement, regardless of where they are
placed in the sentence.
We answered their questions quickly.
Soon, winter will arrive.
We ordered pizza later.
Their cheques arrived yesterday.*
Thursday*, Meagan has a dentist’s appointment.
Luckily, they bought their concert tickets last week*.
*In the last three sentences, the words yesterday, Thursday, and last week are
considered to be adverbs even though they look like nouns.
Words like meanwhile, then, however, therefore are
adverbs which should be placed in the middle of a
sentence.
We will, therefore, donate this money to charity.
The committee will, however, announce its decision
tomorrow.
When these words are used as adverbs, they are usually
set off by commas.
6. Phrases
A phrase is a group of related words used as a noun, an
adjective, or an adverb. It does not contain a subject and a
verb in combination. Most phrases consist of a preposition
plus a noun or pronoun (and modifiers).
Consider the following examples of phrases:
1. Verb phrase: is, can find, is becoming, doesn’t have, comes,
has been growing
2. Noun phrase: the Internet, a computer, information, such global
friendships
3. Verbal phrase (gerund, infinitive, participle):
watching the program, to match the contribution,
flight ticketing and checking-in
4. Prepositional phrase: at any time, of the earth, from his home
(a preposition + noun phrase.)
7. Clauses
A clause is part of a sentence that contains a complete subject and
a complete predicate (what the subject says or does or what is
done to it.) The two types of clauses are:
1. Independent clauses*
The player caught the ball in his glove.
The sentence is an independent clause because it contains a subject,
player, and a predicate (verb) caught, and it expresses a complete
thought.
2. Dependent (subordinate) clauses
Although the sun was in his eyes
The clause above contains a subject and verb but do not express
a complete thought. When you read it, you feel that some
information is missing. It is not a complete idea.
* Some textbooks call those main clauses or principle clauses.
Exercise 7
Look at the portion of each sentence written in italics. Tell if the
italicized words form a clause (C) or a phrase (P) by writing the
appropriate letter in the blank. Hint: It may be helpful to find the
subjects and verbs first.
Example: P
The library does not open until ten o'clock.
____ 1. During his term in office, the mayor made many mistakes.
____ 2. The man ran five miles in thirty minutes.
____ 3. The car which was found behind the store had been
abandoned.
____ 4. After the concert, fans waited by the stage door.
____ 5. As a special reward, we took the children for ice cream.
____ 6. Eventually, after a long wait, we boarded the train.
____ 7. Please close the door when you leave.
____ 8. My grandmother was ninety years old when she made that
quilt.
____ 9. As we sat down to dinner, the telephone rang.
____ 10. I feel sure that there is no reason for your anxiety.
____ 11. Since Charles has finished his work, he can go home
before you do.
____ 12. The workmen that we hired washed the walls of the
living room.
____ 13. Because of the delay, we will be late for the meeting.
____ 14. Did you know that those maps cost $5.00?
____ 15. Many people believed that he was a great musician.
Example: Find the complete sentences.
A.!Letter written by famous poets.
B.!Children imitate their parents.
C.!Beef costs even than chicken.
D.!A person traveling in foreign countries.
Direction: Which are the complete sentences in
the following sets?
1)! a. Few city people keep their cars in garages.
! b. Some builders installing solar energy.
! c. That bank charges high interest on loans.
2)! a. The shopkeeper’s wife reading a movie
magazine.
! b. Drivers in the U.S. carry a special kind of
insurance.
! c. The wedding party left the church in a black
limousine.
3)! a. Dozens of eggs broken on the long trip from the
farm.
! b. Expensive advertising defeated some of the
candidates.
! c. Tragic accidents decrease the volume of air
traffic.
4)! a. Birds migrate the warmer climates during the
autumn months.
! b. A number of requests from members taken into
consideration.
! c. The new commissioner outlined his program to
reporters.
Phrases and clauses: strings of
words, but not quite sentences
Both phrases and clauses are meaningful strings of words
- more than single words, but less than whole sentences.
How are phrases and clauses similar?
Both phrases and clauses are building blocks of sentences.
i Two mutations
[PHRASE]
ii in a human language gene
[PHRASE]
iii have been selected
[VERB GROUP]
iv for over the past 200,000 years,
[PHRASE]
v according to new research
[PHRASE]
Two mutations in a human language gene have been
selected for over the past 200,000 years, according to
new research. (James Randerson in New Scientist, 14/08/2002)
Both phrases and clauses can function
as nouns, adjectives and adverbs.
I saw Braveheart.
noun
I saw a good movie.
noun phrase
I saw what I wanted to see.
noun clause
Both phrases and clauses can function
as nouns, adjectives and adverbs.
I have a helpful friend.
adjective
I have a friend, always willing to help.
adjective phrase
I have a friend who is always helpful.
adjective clause
Both phrases and clauses can function
as nouns, adjectives and adverbs.
I left early.
adverb
I left at sunrise.
adverb phrase
I left when the sun rose.
adverb clause
How do phrases and clauses differ?
• The main difference between clauses and phrases is that
every clause contains a finite verb while no
phrase does.
... it remained a matter of considerable doubt ...
[CLAUSE WITH A FINITE VERB]
... in a human language gene ...
[PHRASE WITHOUT A FINITE VERB]
How do phrases and clauses differ?
• Phrases are usually shorter and closer to words.
Clauses are usually longer and closer to whole
sentences.
It is often easy to replace a phrase with a single word.
I was at a performance of rock music [ --> concert].
PHRASE
WORD
The music was at a hight volume [-----> loud].
PHRASE
WORD
How do phrases and clauses differ?
It is often easy to replace a clause with a whole sentence.
If you help me, I will help you.
CLAUSE
CLAUSE
----> [You help me. Then I will help you.]
SENTENCE
SENTENCE
Types of Phrases
~ classified according to the part of speech of their main word
1. A prepositional phrase - consists of a preposition +
its object (a noun, pronoun, or word group functional
as a noun) and any modifiers. They usually function
as adjectives or adverbs.
After the hurricane [func. as adverb], the residents
of the coastal towns [func. as adjective] returned to
their homes [func. as adverb].
2. Verbal Phrases - participial, infinitive, and gerund
2.1 A participial phrase - consists of a present or
past participle and any objects or modifiers and
functions as adjective.
- Looking pleased with herself, the child curtsied
after her recital.
2.2 An infinitive phrase - consists of an infinitive,
and any objects or modifiers, can function as
adjectives, adverbs, or nouns.
- They want to know his secret. [noun]
- The need to begin immediately should be obvious. [adj.]
- We must work to increase our outreach. [adv.]
2.3 A gerund phrase - consists of a gerund and any
objects or modifiers, always functions as a noun.
- Preparing a term paper is a difficult task.
[subject noun]
- She liked writing with the computer.
[a direct object noun]
3. A verb phrase - consists of a main verb and
any helping verbs.
- The cable company was collecting higher fees
than it had been authorized to charge.
4. A noun phrase - consists of a noun and any
modifiers.
Many large universities use computers.
Types of Clauses
• Main Clause ( Independent Clause)
- I saw a book.
• Subordinate clause (Dependent Clause)
A. Noun Clause:
- I saw what was on the shelf.
B. Adjective Clause:
- I saw a book which was on the shelf.
C. Adverb Clause:
- I saw a book when I looked at the shelf.
What are main clauses?
1. A main clause is a clause that - like and adult - can
stand on its own.
- I saw a book.
MAIN CLAUSE
2. A main clause can also combine with another
clause or clauses).
- I know them but I don’t like them.
MAIN CLAUSE
- I ate
MAIN CLAUSE
when I was hungry.
MAIN CLAUSE
ADVERB CLAUSE
What are subordinate clauses?
Subordinate clauses are clauses that are joined to other
clauses with subordinating conjunctions. It is like a child
holding on to a parent (the main clause) by the hand.
- I will do the dishes when I have finished watching the show.
MAIN CLAUSE
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
1. There are three kinds of subordinate clauses noun clauses, adjective clauses, adverb clauses.
1. Main clause + noun clause:
I saw
what was on the shelf [object].
MAIN CLAUSE
NOUN CLAUSE
2. Main clause + adjective clause:
I saw a book which was on the shelf [modify ‘book].
MAIN CLAUSE
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE
3. Main clause + adverb clause:
I saw a book when I looked at the shelf [modify ‘saw’.
MAIN CLAUSE
ADVERB CLAUSE
2. Subordinate clauses can themselves have clauses that
are subordinate to them - like someone with a child and a
grandchild and a great grandchild.
I saw a book
MAIN CLAUSE
when I looked at the shelf
ADVERB CLAUSE
which was in the room
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE
where I was sitting
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE
while you were out.
ADVERB CLAUSE
3. You can join subordinate clauses to each other in
parallel with coordinating conjunctions:
I saw
MAIN CLAUSE
what was on the shelf and what I wanted.
NOUN CLAUSE
NOUN CLAUSE
I saw your book
MAIN CLAUSE
which was on the shelf and which I needed.
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE
References and Useful websites
Sally B.E., Geral J.A.. et. al. 2003. Writing from A to Z. Mc Graw Hill. USA
George Stern. 2003. An Outline of English Grammar. Learners Publishing Pte Ltd. Singapore
George Stern. 2001. Learners’ Grammar Dictionary. Learners Publishing Pte Ltd. Singapore
Douglas B., Stig J., et. al. 1999. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Pearson Longman. China
http://uwc.ttu.edu/Handbook/view.asp?id=SMH6_hyperlinkp06_c31
http://www.mrgieson.com/library/acrobats/8th_grammar_wkbk/p37thru40.pdf
http://www.bbc.co.uk/skillswise/factsheet/en28conn-e2-f-joining-sentences
http://www.mhschool.com/reading/treasure_workbooks/national/g4/grammar_pb.pdf
http://www.mountainviewms.org/ourpages/auto/2010/8/25/42065987/L7UA01ED.PDF
http://www.yale.edu/graduateschool/writing/forms/Types%20of%20Clauses.pdf
http://www.csun.edu/~sk36711/WWW/engl400/phrases.pdf
http://wps.ablongman.com/wps/media/objects/2943/3014081/LBCHB_PPT_TM/sentencesCh21-36.pdf
http://www.education.com/study-help/article/sentence-structure2/
http://www.ilmoamal.org/bms/attachments/course_pics/7.transformation.picture.JPG
http://www.callowayhouse.com/p/822/magnetic-sentence-building-set
http://ell.stackexchange.com/questions/6359/understanding-a-passage-in-relationwith-clauses-and-phrases
http://www.thewritingcodesystem.com/oll-buildingblocks/
http://www.graphiceducation.com.au/product.php?id_product=128
http://www.sophisticatededge.com/sample-performance-review-phrases1.html
http://www.yale.edu/graduateschool/writing/forms/The%20Most%20Common
%20Sentence%20Structure%20Problems.pdf
http://gypsydaughteressays.blogspot.com/2015/04/sentence-diagramming-diagramming.html