Download Social Network Advertising: Investigating what factors - UvA-DARE

Master thesis
Social Network Advertising: Investigating
what factors affect the change of
consumers’ attitudes.
Name
: Alam Yudhokesumo
Student number
: 5758580
Major
: Business studies
Supervisor
: Drs. Ing. A.C.J. Meulemans
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Table of contents
Abstract
1.
Introduction…………………………………………………………………......5
1.1.
The emerging social networking websites and the
participants………………………………………………………5
2.
1.2.
Problem statement………………………………………......…6
1.3.
Purpose of research……………………………………..……9
1.4.
Research questions……………………………………………12
Literature review………………………………………………………………14
2.1.
E-Commerce…………………………………………….………14
2.2.
Advertising in Marketing and Promotion Mix………………...19
2.2.1. Advertising…………………………………………………...22
2.2.2. Social network advertising………………………….……...25
2.3.
Measuring advertising (communication) result………………36
2.3.1. Consumers’ attitudes……………………………………….40
2.3.1.1.
Attitudes toward advertising…..……………………42
2.3.1.2.
Attitudes toward brand (Brand attitude)…………...46
2.3.2. Factor definitions and measurements……………………..47
2.3.2.1.
Perceived message contents…………….…..…….47
2.3.2.1.1. Entertainment…………………….………..….....47
2.3.2.1.2. Informativeness…………………………..……...48
2.3.2.1.3. Irritation…………………………………...………49
2.3.2.1.4. Credibility……………………………………..…..50
2.4.
2.3.2.2.
Attitude toward Institution of advertising………..…51
2.3.2.3.
Attitude toward Instrument of advertising………....51
2.3.2.4.
Frequency of advertisement exposure…………….52
2.3.2.5.
Consumers’ demographic backgrounds…………..53
Social Media…………………………………………………......54
2.4.1. Social Networking Websites………………………………..56
2.4.2. Facebook……………………………………………………..63
3.
Methodology……………………………………………….…………………68
3.1.
Type of research………………………………………………...68
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
2
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
3.2.
Hypotheses and conceptual model………………………..68
3.3.
Data collection……………………………………………….71
3.4.
Data analyses………………………………………….…….73
3.4.1. Descriptive analyses…………………………….………73
3.4.2. Reliability analyses……………………………..………..74
3.4.3. Correlation and Regression analyses……….………...76
4.
3.4.3.1.
Correlation…………………………….……….....76
3.4.3.2.
Regression analyses……………….………..…..78
Results, Discussions and implications……………………………………85
4.1.
Results, discussion and implications……….………………85
4.2.
Limitations and further research………….…………………94
4.3.
Managerial contributions………………..……………………96
Reference………………………………………………………………….….97
Appendix A. Questionnaire……………………………………………........104
B. SPSS Output………………………………………………….109
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
3
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Abstract
Social networking websites are changing the way companies create
advertisements on the Internet. Many online social networking websites (SNS)
have grown rapidly during the past 10 years. Although still in its infancy, social
networking advertising or online advertising that focuses on social networking
sites are the largest and fastest growing form of social marketing. Given the
reason, it is every advertiser’, companies’ and marketing managers’ dream to
answer the million-dollar question of how can advertisements be carry out
more effectively throughout social networking websites. Creating an ad
campaign is timely and costly efforts. This study offers a clear explanation of
the main aspects that should be stressed and emphasized in designing
advertisements and to avoid elements that might generate a decline in
consumers’ attitudes post to the exposure of advertisement.
A conceptual model was developed and sets of hypotheses were
proposed to statistically test the survey-based data and quantitatively analyze
the results. 241 members of Facebook social networking website filled the
online questionnaires. Among all the factors analyzed, the finding of this
research has concluded that Entertainment, Informativeness, and Credibility
of advertising message content as well as advertising Instrument selection
and Frequency of exposure, play important role in affecting consumers’
attitudes investigated. The research is timely and may be of importance for
academics, advertising practitioners, and companies in general.
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
4
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
1. Introduction
1.1.1. The emerging Social networking websites and the participants
Companies around the world are trying to exploit and take advantage
the opportunity created by technology, such as it is today with Internet. Since
the explosion of the Internet, more than 1 billion people worldwide have
connected to the World Wide Web (Torres, 2008). Through this new
“flattened” world (Friedman, 2005), this user base has created and facilitated
significant opportunities for communication and collaboration today, making
social networking synonymous with the use of the Internet.
Consequently many online social networking websites (SNS) have
grown rapidly too during the past 10 years. They have become a popular tool
of communication and an active online platform to socialize with friends,
families, associates or anyone in own networks. Social networking sites such
as MySpace and Facebook, to name just a few, have been increasingly
popular in the last few years (Joinson, 2008). They have experienced a
significant growth in their number of visitors. A 2006 Nielsen-NetRatings study
revealed that a number of social networking Web sites experienced a 47%
increase in visitor traffic between 2005 and 2006. During the same period,
MySpace witnessed a 367% growth in the number of visitors. In the UK, the
usage of Facebook increased by 500% between November 2006 and May
2007. Mixi, a popular social networking site in Japan, had over 10 million
users and an 80% share of the social networking market in Japan (Wikipedia,
2008). Similarly, in the Netherlands, by July 2008, Hyves announced that they
had reached 7 million users, of which about 5 million were Dutch (Wikipedia,
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
5
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
2008). This amounts to about a third of the entire population of The
Netherlands. Looking at bigger picture, Nielsen (2008) statistics shows that
out of a total population of 6.7 Billion in the world; around 1.5 Billion people of
the population are connected to the Internet (Internet users). From that 1.5
Billion world Internet users, 140 million of them are “on Facebook” (Facebook,
2008), approximately 30 million more are “professionally Linked-in” (LinkedIn,
2008), and more than 110 million are on “their Space” (MySpace, 2008).
Moreover, a huge number, 95%, of teens and “tweens” (preteens and young
adolescents aged 10-14) across the globe, report their participation in online
social networks (Klaassen, 2007a).
Currently, social network participation is one of the most common
usages of the Internet. It seems as if online social network has become “a
new town square” for teens to hangout (O Reilly, 2006). This social
networking trend has created a major shift in the Internet's function and
design (Torres, 2008). The fact that millions of users have adopted social
networks for everything from friendships to dating to job hunting shows the
indication of the significant change in the manner in which the “connected”
community interacts with each other. And this phenomenon shows that social
networking has led to a digitalization of the human conversation (Torres,
2008).
1.1.2. Social network websites as a new advertising medium
For years traditional marketing involved a one-way communication
effort. Through televisions, radio, printed media and other traditional
marketing tools, companies put onward value propositions to generate market
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
6
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
appeal, attract and retain customers, and drive sales (Ford, 2008). However,
with consumers showing the increasing resistance to traditional forms of
advertising, marketers must turn to alternate strategies to reach the targeted
market (Leskovec, Adamic & Huberman, 2008). According to a study by
Stanford as mentioned by Laudon & Traver (2008), for every traditional hour
users spend online, they reduce their corresponding time spent with traditional
media such as television, newspaper, and radio. Several points from literature
by Ducoffe (1996) on his study also suggested few points of why advertising
in the traditional media often possesses rather little value to consumers.
With the ever-changing world of technology, consumers can be
reached through more and more media. These opportunities are only possible
if companies and their marketing department follow their audiences and
understand how to reach them effectively (Stephansen, 2008). This can be
done such as through social networking websites, which are increasingly
being recognized as important sources of information influencing the adoption
and use of products and services (Subramani & Rajagopalan, 2003). Ford
(2008) suggested that effectively advertising products using traditional media
approaches is impractical. He suggested that using more targeted marketing
approaches such as through social networks is advantageous both to the
merchant and the consumer, who would benefit from learning about new
products.
A Study conducted by Klassen (2007b) reported that friends passing
along brand messages on online social networks contribute to 70% of the
sales return on investment (ROI). This means that 70% of advertisement
found in online social network catch users attention and encourage them to
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
7
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
share the advertisements again through their networks. A recent research by
Razorfish (2008) reported that interestingly 40% of survey respondents said
they have made a purchase based on advertising they saw on a social media
site, and the vast majority welcome advertising in social media experiences.
On the following part, Todi (2008) summarized four main reasons of why
social networks are playing more prominent parts in companies’ advertising
strategies:

Large reach: In December 2007, the top three social networking sites,
Facebook, MySpace and YouTube, had roughly 161 million unique
visitors combined in the US alone. This accounted for roughly twothirds of the total US population online and nearly half of the total US
population. Additionally, Internet users worldwide are spending
increasing amounts of time on activities with social connections. By
incorporating social networks in their advertising strategies, companies
can reach out to a large user base spread across the country with
relative ease.

Cost efficiency: Advertising on social networks is relatively cheap
compared to other traditional medias. It usually has a similar or
expanded reach at much lower costs. In addition, it is possible for
companies to generate free publicity through creative advertising
techniques. There have been a number of successful viral marketing
campaigns on YouTube and Facebook in recent years.

Targeted advertising: Advertisers have access to a great deal of
information about users and their interests, allowing them to customize
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
8
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
and target their ads to a degree not yet seen in any other advertising
medium.

Time spent online: People are spending increasing amounts of time
online, especially on social networking websites, at the expense of
traditional advertising media such as television and newspapers. This
can be viewed as a result of many of the traditional functions – news,
television shows – of the old advertising media being shifted online to
social networks such as in YouTube. As a result, advertisers are
increasingly looking for ways to reach out to consumers who are
spending more and more time online.
1.1.3. Problem statement
As Social networking websites have grown in popularity, seeing the
facts and figures mentioned before suggest that marketers and advertisers
may see them as extraordinary opportunities. Besides providing an arena for
people to interact with one another, social networking websites also display a
great deal of potential for businesses to easily reach their target audiences
through advertising (Wind & Todi, 2008). Evidently, most corporations have
already created multiple methods of advertising in this new medium, ranges
from banners to newer forms such as the creation of product groups that
people can join freely such as like it is available now on Facebook. These
corporations may have believed so, due to the fact that online social networks
have an enormous outreach and able to provide the ability of targeting many
people at a relatively low cost in a short period of time.
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
9
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
However, conversely to the earlier reasons suggested, many sources
had suggested that advertising on web-based advertising in general to be
ineffective. Brackett and Carr’s (2001) research showed that their samples
were irritated, and annoyed by Web Advertising in general, and Internet
advertising can be irritating (Rettie, Robinson and Jenner, 2000), hence this
may reduce advertising effectiveness. Clemon, Barnett, & Appadurai (2007)
suggest that advertising in these online venues will be unsuccessful, and that
at best advertising will be little more than irrelevant to viewers and waste of
advertisers’ money. At worst, advertising will be seen as an unwelcome
intrusion, and as reducing the value of the social website to its participants. A
similar opinion also tossed from Hadija (2007), who suggested that online
social networks represent intimate environments for Internet users, hence
advertising might not be welcome there if it continues to be wrongly targeted
and intrusive, and that could possibly lead to substantial revenue loss from
advertising in these sites. Moreover, there are many also blogs, online article,
forum and discussions over the Internet suggesting that advertising on social
network websites do not and will not work (Uphoff, 2009; Bgamal, 2009;
Porter, 2008; Stern, 2008).
1.2.
Purpose of Research
The growth of advertising on the World Wide Web requires research on
users' view (Ducoffe, 1996). Ever since the first pop-up advertisement hit the
Internet in 1994, Internet users have accepted advertising as a necessary evil
on the Internet. Consumer preferences have evolved along with the Internet. If
marketers want to use the communication channels that social media,
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
10
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
particularly social networking websites provide in an efficient way, they need
to understand how consumer perceive and evaluate social networking
websites as a source of advertising. Creating an ad campaign is timely and
costly efforts. Marketers need to be aware of the negative attitudes held by
consumers towards advertising on social network advertising and the adverse
effect it could have on the brands advertised. Even though companies are
investing heavily on advertising in social networking websites, the nature and
implications of how customers perceive advertising in this channel have yet to
be fully understood and studies need to be performed. Because social
network advertising is relatively new, not much is known about how
consumers’ attitudes change when being exposed by social network
advertising or what affect the change of consumers’ attitudes when they are
being exposed by social network advertising in their everyday life. Specifically,
prior researches have yet to explore on how social network advertising
message contents, attitudes toward institution of social network advertising,
attitudes toward instruments of social network advertising, and frequency of
social network advertising exposure will affect consumers’ attitudes, namely
attitude toward advertisements and attitude toward brand. Therefore, this
thesis aims to contribute to this objective.
The purpose of this research is to study the area of social network
advertising, an emerging method of advertising which uses social networking
websites as new advertising medium, based on how their viewers perceive
the advertisements in which they had encountered before. In addition, the
contents being asked as examples in the questionnaire would be all types of
advertisements exposed in social networking websites, and not just an
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
11
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
exposure from a particular form of advertisement of a particular organization.
In short, the concrete objectives of this research are listed as following:

To examine what factors affect the change of consumers’ attitudes
when social network advertising exposes them.

To
understand
how
consumers’
attitudes
(attitude
toward
advertisement, and attitude toward brand) will change, affected by the
elements of social network advertising message contents, attitude
toward institution of social network advertising, attitude toward
instrument of social network advertising, and frequency of social
network advertising exposure.

To provide insights and suggestions to marketers and advertisers
based on the result of the study
1.3.
Research Questions
For the purposes of the research mentioned, the following main
research questions and sub research questions are developed:
Main research questions:

What factors affect the change of consumers’ attitudes when
exposed by social network advertising?
In this study, attitude toward advertising and attitude toward brand will
be taken as examinations of consumers’ attitudes. To answer the research
question, a conceptual model consisting factors of advertising message
contents (entertainment, informativeness, irritation, credibility), attitudes
toward institution of advertising, and attitude toward instrument of advertising
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
12
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
as well as consumers’ attitudes (attitude toward advertisement and attitude
toward brand) are adopted from existing literature and prior researches,
adapted to fit the nature of the research, and analyzed the relationship for the
purpose of this study. Additionally, in order to cover broader results,
consumers’ demographic backgrounds such as, age, and frequency of
advertisement exposure, number of social networking websites participation)
will also be analyzed the relationship. Hypotheses and conceptual model
carried out in this thesis will be displayed on the latter part after the definitions
and the measurements of each construct have been delineated.
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
13
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
2. Literature review
2.1.
E-commerce
E-commerce technologies permit many business models, including
ones on social networking websites to exist. Therefore, in this research,
literatures of e-commerce will be presented as the opening section of this
chapter.
Electronic commerce, commonly known as e-commerce consists of the
buying and selling of products or services over electronic systems, such as
through the Internet and other computer networks (Wikipedia, 2009). The
amount of trade conducted electronically has grown extraordinarily since the
spread of the Internet. A wide variety of commerce is conducted in this way,
spurring and drawing on innovations in electronic funds transfer, supply chain
management, Internet marketing, online transaction processing, electronic
data interchange, inventory management systems, automated data collection
systems, and etc. Modern electronic commerce typically uses the World Wide
Web at least at some point in the transaction's lifecycle, although it can
encompass a wider range of technologies such as e-mail as well (Wikipedia,
2008). Laudon and Traver (2008) defined e-commerce as “the use of Internet
and the Web to transact business focusing on digitally enabled commercial
transactions between and among individual”. Another definition of ecommerce is “the delivery of goods/services or payments via networks,
application technology towards automation of business transactions, and as a
tool for increasing business efficiency and for cutting costs” (Kataloka, 1997).
Electronic commerce is generally considered to be the sales aspect of eAuthor: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
14
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
business. It also consists of the exchange of data to facilitate the financing
and payment aspects of the business transactions.
Laudon and Traver (2008) listed eight unique features of e-commerce
technology. These unique features of e-commerce technologies suggest
many new possibilities for marketing and selling. E-commerce technologies
make it possible for merchants to know much more about consumers and to
be able to use this information more effectively than ever was before in the
past. Potentially, merchants use this new information to develop new
information asymmetries. They can enhance their ability to brand products,
and segment the market better. The unique features of e-commerce
technology (Laudon and Traver, 2008) said before will be described next.
 Ubiquity: The Web/Internet enables e-commerce technology available
just about everywhere, at all times. The marketplace is extended
beyond traditional boundaries and is removed from a temporal and
geographic location, and transformed into “Marketspace”.
 Global reach: The technology reaches across national boundaries and
around the earth.
 Universal standards: There is one set of technology standards,
namely Internet standards.
 Richness: The complexity and content of the message. Video, audio
and text message are possible to be integrated into a single marketing
message and consuming experience.
 Interactivity: The technology works through interaction with the user. It
allows for two-ways communication between merchant and consumer,
thus making the consumer a co-participants
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
15
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
 Information density: The technology reduces information costs and
raises quality, because the total amount and quantity of information
are available to all market participants.
 Personalization/Customization: The technology allows personalized
messages to be delivered to individuals as well as groups, by
adjusting the message to interests and preference, or prior behavior
and past-purchase.
 Social Technology: The technology enables user content creation
and distribution, and supports social networks.
Zooming in the last feature, Social Technology, suggests that in a way
quite different from all previous technologies, the Internet and e-commerce
technologies have evolved to be much more social by allowing users to create
and share content in the form of text, videos, music, or photos with a
worldwide community. Using these forms of communication, users are able to
create new social networks and strengthen existing ones. All previous mass
media in modern history, including the printing press, use broadcast model
(one-to-many) where content is created and in a central location by experts
(professional writers, editors, directors, actors, and producers,) and audiences
are concentrated to consume a standardized products. The Telephone would
appear to be an exception but it is not a “mass communication” technology,
instead, the telephone is one-to-one technology. The new Internet and ecommerce technologies have the potential change this standard media model
by giving users the power to create and distribute content on a large scale,
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
16
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
and permit users to program their own consumption. The Internet provides
many-to-many model of mass communication that is unique.
There are variety of different types of e-commerce and many different
ways to characterize it. Laudon and Traver (2008) also listed five major types
of e-commerce in their book. These types of e-commerce are distinguished by
the nature of the market relationship, which is who is selling to whom. They
are described briefly below:

Business-to-Consumer (B2C) E-commerce is in which online
business attempt to reach individual consumers. Within B2C category,
there are many different types of business models, such as: portals,
content
providers,
transaction
brokers,
service
providers,
and
community network providers (social networking websites) such as
Facebook.

Business-to-business (B2B) E-commerce provides business focus
on selling to other business, and is the largest form of e-commerce.
There are two primary business models used within the B2B arena,
such as: Net marketplaces, which include e-distributors, e-procurement
companies, exchanges and industry consortia; and private industrial
networks, which include single firm networks and industry-wide
networks.

Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C) E-commerce provides a way for
consumers to sell to each other, with the help of an online market
maker such as the global auction site eBay (eBay, 2008), or
Marktplaats (Marktplaats, 2008) in the Netherlands. Nowadays, many
popular social networking websites (such as Facebook) may seem to
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
17
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
start adopting this feature and therefore allowing transactions and
payments to be made without even having to leave the website.

Peer-to-Peer (P2P) E-commerce technology enables Internet user, to
share files and computer resources directly without having to go
through a central web server. In peer-to-peer’s purest form, no
intermediary is required, although in fact, most P2P networks make use
of intermediary “super servers” to speed operations. The business
models that support P2P commerce are unusual and in most cases are
illegal. Like for example with Napster that was being put out of the
business to bankruptcy on 2002 by series of negative court decisions,
and was re-purchased again lately on 2008 by US Electronic retailer,
Best Buy, for $US 121 million (Wikipedia, 2009).
Facebook, MySpace, and hundreds of other niche-oriented social
networking sites, are emblematic of the new e-commerce (Laudon and
Traver, 2008). These sites and others are defining a new and vibrant model of
e-commerce growing up alongside the more traditional e-commerce retail
sales models exemplified by Amazon and eBay, as well as funded by
advertising models. In these new models, services are provided both to
subscribers (users) as well as to business firms to advertise to entire
audiences
of
the
websites
(consumer-to-consumer
and
business-to-
consumer). Never before in the history of media have such large audiences
been aggregated and made accessible (Laudon and Traver, 2008), thus
making the social networks technology that is highly disruptive for traditional
media firms. Furthermore, with the eyeballs toward social networking sites
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
18
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
(SNS) and user-generated content (UGC) sites mean fewer audiences of
traditional advertising medias. Social networks are becoming the place where
new products can be introduced and where new sales can be achieved to
highly targeted and segmented audiences with a precision that was
impossible to be reached before (Laudon and Traver, 2008). E-commerce
technology permits commercial transactions to cross cultural and national
boundaries far more conveniently and cost-effectively than is true in traditional
commerce. As a result, according to industry sources Internet Worldstats
(2007), the potential market size for e-commerce merchants is roughly equal
to the size of world’s online population, which is over than 1.2 billion in 2007
and growing rapidly. The total number of users or customers an e-commerce
business can obtain is a measure of its reach (Evans & Wurster, 1997).
2.2.
Advertising in Marketing and Promotion Mix
This research investigates the area of advertising done particularly on
Social networking websites. Therefore, literatures of Advertising are
essentials to be included in this thesis. The relation of advertising in Marketing
and Promotion Mix is beforehand described in the first part of this section.
Then, literatures of Advertising will be presented subsequently on the second
part. And Social network advertising specifically will be focused on the last
part of this section.
Organizations handle advertising in different ways. In small companies,
someone handles advertising in the sales or marketing department who works
with an outside advertising agency, whereas a large company will often set up
its own department. The advertising department’s job is to propose a budget,
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
19
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
develop advertising strategy, approve ads and campaigns, and handle a
number other forms of advertising. Most companies today use an outside
agency to help create advertising campaigns and to select and purchase
media (Kotler, 2003).
The marketer’s task is to build a marketing program or plan to achieve
the company’s desired objectives. The marketing program consists of
numerous decisions on the mix of marketing tools to use. Advertising is just a
tool that can be integrated with other promotion tools within promotion mix,
and promotion mix is also a smaller part of marketing mix. According to Kotler
(2003), Promotion mix or Marketing Communication mix is “a company’s
total marketing communication program”. Promotion mix consists of specific
mix of advertising, personal selling, sales promotion, and public relations tools
that the company uses to pursue its advertising and marketing objectives. And
Marketing mix is “the set of marketing tools the firm uses to pursue its
marketing objectives in the target market”.
Kotler (2003) also brought up McCarthy in his book that classified
these tools into four broad groups, the so called four P’s of Marketing,
consisting of Product, Price, Place, and Promotion (figure 1). These four P’s
of (traditional) marketing mix are extended for service firms (Booms & Bitner,
1981), adding up another 3 P’s, which are People, Physical evidence, and
Process. In addition, Lovelock & Wright (1999) added another extension, the
eight P, which is Productivity and Quallity. Many questions have arisen,
however, regarding whether these (offline) P’s of marketing mix are applicable
for online environment. Regardless of some sources may have said
otherwise, but some other literatures found have suggested that these
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
20
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
differences may only lay with the implications tools and not the interpretations
and the elements, and therefore they can be adapted to fit each nature of
business.
Figure 2.1
The Four P components of Marketing Mix
Source: Kotler, 2003
In Figure 2.1 above are shown particular variables under each “P” of
Marketing Mix, and in Figure 2.2 next is shown a company’s Marketing-Mix
strategy consisting of Offering Mix of products, services, and process and
utilization of a Promotion Mix of sales promotion, advertising, sales force,
public relations and direct marketing to reach the trade channels and target
customers. Kotler (2003) suggested that firms can change their price, sales
force size, and advertising expenditures in the short run, but in the long run
they can only develop new products and modify its distribution channels.
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
21
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Figure 2.2
Marketing-Mix strategy
Source: Kotler, 2003
2.2.1. Advertising
There are many definitions of advertising given from different sources.
According to Kotler (2003), advertising is “any paid form of non-personal
presentation and promotion of ideas, goods or services by an identified
sponsor”.
Similarly,
American
Marketing
Association
(1984)
defined
advertising as “a statement or propagation, which is paid by advertisers, can
be displayed in any forms, and they can convey any concepts, commodities or
services that are provided by the advertisers”. Wikipedia (2009) showed the
definition of Advertising as “a form of communication that typically attempts to
persuade potential customers to purchase or to consume more of a particular
brand of product or service”. Dunn (1990) made a specific definition for
advertising, that is “Advertising is paid, non-personal communication through
various mass media by business firms, nonprofit organizations, and
individuals who are in some way identified in the message and who hope to
inform or persuade members of a particular audience”.
Advertising can efficiently reach geographically dispersed buyers.
Advertising can be used to build up a long-term image for a product or trigger
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
22
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
quick sales. Certain forms of advertising may require a large budget, whereas
other forms do not. Just the presence of advertising might have an effect on
sales. Consumers might believe that a heavily advertised brand must offer
“good value” (Kotler, 2003). Because of many forms and uses of advertising, it
is difficult to make generalizations. Yet the following qualities of advertising
suggested by Kotler (2003) can be noted:

Public presentation: Advertising’s public nature presents a kind of
legitimacy on the product and also suggests a standardized offering.

Pervasiveness: Advertising permits the seller to repeat a message
many times. It also allows the buyer to receive and compare the
messages of various competitors. Large-scale advertising says
something positive about the seller’s size, power and success.

Amplified expressiveness: Advertising provides opportunities for
dramatizing the company and its products through the artful use of
print, sound, and color.

Impersonality: The audience does not feel obligated to pay attention
or respond to advertising. Advertising is monologue in front of not a
dialogue with, the audience.
Advertising plays a significant role in providing an introduction to the
company and its product, and if the product embodies new features,
advertising can explain them. Advertising can also remind customers of how
to use the product and reassure them about their purchase (Kotler, 2003).
Mehta (2000) recommended that advertising should be practical messages,
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
23
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
which are liked and trusted by public because those messages can provide
up-to-date information about commodities or service.
Furthermore, Kotler (2003) also suggested that in developing a
program, marketing department must always start by identifying the target
market and buyer motives. Then, five major decisions in developing an
advertising program can be made. These five Ms of advertising includes:

Mission: What are the advertising objectives?

Money: How much can be spent?

Message: What message should be sent?

Media: What media should be used?

Measurement: How should the results be evaluated?
Moreover, in regard to Kotler’s first point above, many specific
communication and sales objectives can be assigned to advertising. When
developing the Mission part as it is shown above, advertising objectives must
flow from prior decisions on target market, market positioning, and marketing
mix. Advertising objectives can be classified according to whether their aim is
to inform, persuade, remind, or reinforce. Each type of these advertising
characters aims at different stages in the Hierarchy of Effects that will be
discussed on the latter section. The character of advertising as distinguished
by Kotler (2003) were as following:

Informative advertising aims to create awareness and knowledge of
new products or new features of existing products.

Persuasive advertising aims to create liking, preference, conviction,
and purchase of a products or service.
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
24
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam

Reminder advertising aims to stimulate repeat purchase of products
and services

Reinforcement advertising aims to convince current purchasers that
they had made the right choice.
Here we can see that advertisement can be created to different
objectives. Creating an advertisement campaign is also a costly and timely
effort. Marketers and advertisers usually have to test and see the results first
before they initiate it on a bigger scale. Therefore, knowing and planning what
kind of advertisement, what aspect should be stressed, and what media or
techniques should be implemented is an important task for marketers and
advertisers. The sooner are these objectives be identified can help them to
plan the campaign effectively and efficiently as well as will speed up the whole
campaign planning process, so there will not be a bigger time gap with the
product launch, which of course will be an advantage if a company is
competing heavily with its competitors.
As advertising has been described briefly, specifically, next section will
discuss on Social Network Advertising, and how in fact it has shown to be a
new form of Internet Advertising, emerged due to the rise of social networking
websites phenomenon. Literatures found on both Social Network Advertising
and Internet Advertising is presented together in the section.
2.2.2. Social Network Advertising
Companies have been investing in Internet presence management
since past decade. Since the first banner advertisement was appeared,
Internet advertising has evolved dramatically (Adams, 1995). Internet
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
25
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
advertising is treated widely as “any forms of commercial content available on
the Internet, and it can be delivered via any channel, in any form, and
provides information at any degree of depth”. The commercial content is what
businesses want to inform consumers about (Schlosser, Shavitt & Kanfer,
1999). Unlike traditional one-way advertisements, Internet advertising allows
consumers to take active role in marketing communications. According to
Schlosser (1999) Internet Advertising has the following benefits:

Information richness: With the Internet, the advertising message can
contain more content-rich product information, not just one short,
memorable message as traditional advertisements do.

Ease of updating: Updating online information is less costly, quicker
and easier than maintaining traditional advertisements.

Brand information: Internet advertisements can contain more brandrelevant information for building brand image, such as trivia about the
company and details about the sponsored organizations.

Data collection: Online advertisers can easily gather information of
their consumers’ activities without expensive cost, such as consumer
reactions to current products and advertisements.

Global exposure: Because the Internet reaches audiences worldwide,
online advertisers can respond to this global accessibility easily.

Customization: The nature of Internet allows consumers to choose
advertising information that they want to obtain. For example,
consumers can decide whether the information should be displayed in
textual,
graphic,
video
or
auditory,
and
whether
a
product
demonstration or detailed product description is used.
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
26
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam

Enhance customer-company relations: Internet advertisements can
be applied as a customer service vehicle. For instance, relationships
can be enhanced through reducing purchase uncertainty, through
online product trials or demonstrations, by providing online technical
support.

Role-playing: It is more persuasive to encourage consumers to
generate arguments about product through role-playing in interactive
games and contests.

Purchase facilitation: Since Internet advertisements provide easy
access for consumers to get details of product and to purchase, it also
creates the opportunity for the ultimate in impulse buying.
Other forms of Internet presence that companies have been investing
are social network marketing. Social network marketing or social level
marketing is “an advertising method that makes use of social network service
and to increase their web presence (Wikipedia, 2009)”. This ranges from
simply advertising directly on social networking sites, viral marketing that
spreads throughout the web, email, and word of mouth, or providing niche
social networking sites focused around the item being advertised. This thesis
was initially attempted to research the effectiveness or the efficiency of
advertising placed on the social networking sites, or may else be known better
as Social network advertising. Besides one that was available from Wikipedia,
there may have been another solid and more reliable precise definitions for
Social Network Advertising from articles and literatures of academics that the
researcher has not found yet, but surprisingly there were not many available.
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
27
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
This is understandable considering that Social Networking Websites are a
quite new phenomenon and academics eyeballs have not looked there until
recent years. There was no precise definition yet of Social Network
Advertising given by Laudon and Traver (2008) on their book, but instead,
they showed a number of different forms of online advertisement, as in the
following part:

Display ads (Banners and pop-ups)
 Rich media and video ads
 Search engine advertising
 In-game ads
 Social network, blog and game advertising
 Sponsorship
 Referrals (affiliate relationship marketing)
 E-mail Marketing
 Online Catalogs
As seen above, social network advertising is a form of online
advertising or Internet advertising. Laudon and Traver’s (2008) definition of
online advertising or Internet advertising was “a paid message on a Web site,
online service, or other interactive medium”. A “working” definition found from
Wikipedia (2008) on Social Network Advertising was “a term that is used to
describe a form of online advertising that focuses on social networking sites”.
In addition, Wikipedia (2008) showed a more specific three major
classifications of Social Network Advertising that are currently used. They
were described and given the examples as following:
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
28
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam

Direct Advertising that is based on one’s network of friends
This can be the most effective format but also causes the most
controversy. An example for this is the “Facebook’s Beacon Project” as
it is shown in Figure 2.3 below. Based on an action taken by a person
or friend, namely “Thi” as shown below, in his network. Thi’s friend
might see a message in their “news feed” (which usually provided in
most social networking sites) or in Thi’s “home” profile page, saying for
example, Thi has just bought or reviewed or added to her wish list, a
particular product from a particular shop. This can be an extremely
effective mode as often people make decisions to purchase something
or do something based on their close group of friends. However, there
is also a lot of controversy surrounding this as it can be considered
exploiting the personal relationships, which raises privacy concerns.
Figure 2.3
Example of Facebook Beacon Project Advertising on Facebook
Source: www.facebook.com (2009)

Direct Advertising placed on social networking site
As it is shown next on Figure 2.4, this is a more traditional form of web
advertising. Just like banner ads on many other sites, this is a similar
concept, except on a social networking site. One can see these, for
example, as a brick in the top right of Facebook pages, or as a banner
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
29
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
on the right side of Facebook profiles (as shown on figure 2.4) and so
on. The upside here is that these social networks can take advantage
of demographic data on social network users’ profile and hence target
the ad directly to the correct demographic market.
Figure 2.4
Example of Banner advertisement on Facebook (bottom right)
Source: www.facebook.com (2009)

Indirect Advertising by creating “groups” or “pages” and
“applications” or “gifts”
An excellent way for companies to build a community around their
product or service is to create a group representing it. This is an
innovative marketing technique in which a company will create a “page”
or “group” that users can choose to join. Some of the features that a
group has are a discussion board, a “wall,” posted items (great place to
post links) and the possibility to upload videos and pictures. They will
use this group or page to build up subscribers or “fans” and use this to
market a contest, introduction, discussion or review of a product, or
simply just to increase brand awareness. These groups can quickly
grow in numbers of subscribers and fans and become a very effective
and interactive marketing communication tool. The downside of “page”
or “group” is that since the communication flow on this medium is twoway, sometimes companies could not control the conversations traffic
30
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
within the group. Some might have a positive view towards the
company or the brands, but some others might also have negative
perceptions. That is why there have been emerging services provided
by advertising agencies to deal with this problem. After hired, these
advertising agencies will then provide companies with “ghost”
consumers that will act as another customer and counter the negative
communication flows on the page.
Besides groups and pages, there are also “applications” and “gifts”.
“Applications” are an innovative advertising in which companies create
an application that users can play or interact with in different ways. As
in “gift”, companies create their virtual product that can be sent by one
user to another, and some of them are free while some others require
credits purchase, which are not free. These gifts can be used to
increase brand or product awareness. For an example, on figure 2.5
next is shown an example of The New York Times newspaper’s “page”
on Facebook, on figure 2.6 is shown an example of Pizza hut’s
ordering “application” on Facebook, and chocolate and candy “gifts” by
different companies. Important to be noted, some of these new
advertising methods on Facebook such as “page” and “gifts” may not
require any cost at all.
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
31
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Figure 2.5
Example of Facebook “groups” or “page” form of advertisement
Source: www.facebook.com (2009)
Figure 2.6
Pizza Hut’s “application” (left) and variety of “gifts” (right) on Facebook
Source: www.facebook.com (2009)
Having mentioned all the evidences earlier, from this point forward it is
important to note that Social network advertising in this thesis will be referred
to as “any paid form of communication placed on social networking websites,
either direct or indirect, paid or free, that attempts to increase brand/product
knowledge or awareness or persuade potential customers to purchase or to
consume more of a particular brand of product or service”. Furthermore, a
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
32
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
study done by Wind & Todi (2008) proposed three criteria of advertising
campaigns on social networks that need to be fulfilled in order to be
successful. These criteria were concluded, based on the findings of the study.
These criteria were described as following:

It has to be unobtrusive: The inception of the Internet saw the first
iteration of online advertising in the form of pop-up ads: these opened
new browsing windows flashing advertisements that would distract
users from optimally experiencing the website. However, consumer
preferences saw increasing means to combat unwanted advertising.
The advent of the pop-up blocker, which prevented any pop-up ads
from opening on computers, forced advertisers to rethink their tactics.
Thus, there has been a trend towards online advertising becoming less
obtrusive and more integrated with the look of the page.

It has to be creative: Advertising on social networks has to avoid the
usage traditional forms of online advertising, such as text-based ads
and banner ads, in order to reach out to users. Social network website
users are increasingly ignoring these forms of advertising as they
reiterate similar messages and detract from usage experiences. In
order to attract attention, companies need to deliver their message in
imaginative ways that have never been done before. They should take
advantage of the structure of social networks, such as applications on
Facebook, and the easy sharing between parties in order to spread
awareness among users.

It has to engage users: Social network websites have empowered
users and allowed them to be creative. The technology behind the
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
33
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
websites has enabled its users to fully display their unique personalities
online. Companies can harness this expression of creativity by
engaging the users in the advertising process themselves through
social networks. This will give users a greater sense of involvement
with established brands, eventually identifying themselves with the
companies. Even if the advertisements do not harness users‟
creativity, they should encourage user participation and involvement in
order to develop a closer relationship
The two key elements of web 2.0 are the rapid growth of usergenerated content and the use of Internet for socializing and sharing. With
such enormous numbers of users participating in those social networking
sites, it is more likely that marketers and advertisers are happy with the
prospect of dominating this new audience. Evidently, Microsoft for example
who purchased an interest in Facebook, and Google who purchased from
Youtube (Laudon and Traver, 2008), suggest the excitement in the marketing
community for the potential of social networking. Despite in the past, major
brands have been reluctant to risk advertising on content they cannot control,
it seems that now they are beginning to experiment with a number new of
formats. Other social networks websites such as Youtube may offer
advertisers all the new formats found on portal and search sites including
banner ads (the most common), short pre-roll and post-roll ads before a
video, and sponsorship of content (Laudon and Traver, 2008).
Although still in its infancy, social networking advertising is the largest
and fastest growing form of social marketing, generating $900 Million in
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
34
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
revenue for 2007 (eMarketer, 2007d). In 2008, all forms of social marketing
are expected to generate $1 billion in revenues, and it is expected those
revenues will double each year until 2011 (eMarketer, 2007). In addition, as
seen on Figure 2.6 (eMarketer, 2008) below, the worldwide spending social
network advertising are also expected to grow until 2011.
Figure 2.6
Worldwide online social network advertising
Source: www.emaketer.com
There are a number of different types of social networks sites from
general purpose like MySpace to niche networks of professionals and
hobbyists, to sponsored networks created by firms. However, most of
advertising action centers on the leading sites-MySpace ($525 million),
Facebook ($125 million) and Youtube ($200 million). These leading sites
account for 94% of social network advertising (eMarketer, 2007d).
In the
longer term of the next five to ten years, with the current trends, it is likely that
social networking websites will have the most audience shares, being a
dominance amongst other advertising platforms.
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
35
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
2.3.
Measuring advertising (communication) result.
The main idea for this thesis was initially built up based on the
researcher’s intention to study the communication result, the effectiveness
and/or efficiency of social network advertising, an emerging method of
advertising which uses social networking websites as new advertising
medium. Therefore, this section will discuss further on the subject.
Good planning and control of advertising depend on measures of
advertising effectiveness and efficiency. However, many marketing managers
believe that it is almost impossible to measure what they are getting for their
advertising spending (Kotler, 2003). According to Jay Forrester as quoted by
Kotler (2003) in his book, probably no more than 1/5 of 1% of total advertising
expenditure is used to achieve an enduring understanding of how to spend
another 99.8%. There are many ways of evaluating communication
result/advertising effectiveness and efficiency as suggested by scholars and
academics. Some of them as proposed by Kotler (2003) are by doing a
communication-effect research and a sales-effect research.
Sales-effect research or research of sales effect affected by
advertising, is generally harder to measure than its communication effect
(Kotler, 2003). In this method, researchers try to measure the sales impact
through analyzing either historical or experimental data. The historical
approach involves correlating past sales to past advertising expenditures
using advanced statistical techniques. And the experimental approach can be
examined by using different variables experimentally. Sales are influenced by
many factors, such as product’s features, price, availability, as well as
competitor’s action. The fewer or more controllable these other factors are,
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
36
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
the easier it is to measure its effect on sales. The sales impact is the easiest
way to measure in direct marketing situations, and unfortunately is the hardest
way to measure brand or corporate image-building advertising (Kotler, 2003).
In addition, due to limitations of time and the researcher’s ability to collect
genuine valid data (such as official sales and expenditures reports) from
companies, which is also usually confidential for outsiders. Therefore this
method is unfortunately will not be adopted in this research.
Furthermore, the second advertising effectiveness research method
proposed by Kotler (2003), Communication-effect research, seeks to
determine whether an advertisement is communicating effectively or
efficiently. There are three major methods of communication effect research
as proposed by Kotler (2003). These three methods are as following:

Consumer feedback method asks consumers for their reactions to
advertisements.

Portfolio tests ask consumers to view or listen to a portfolio of
advertisements, taking as much time as they need. Consumers are
then asked to recall all the ads and their content. Recall level indicates
an advertisement’s ability to stand out and to have its message
understood and remembered.

Laboratory tests use equipment to measure physiological reactions to
an advertisement.
These physiological reactions are including
heartbeat, blood pressure, pupil dilation, galvanic skin response, and
perspiration, or consumers may be asked to turn a knob to indicate
their moments-to-moment liking or interest while viewing sequenced
material.
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
37
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
In addition, when conducting a communication effect research to
evaluate advertising efficiency, Kotler (2003) suggested the following measure
that can be taken into considerations:

Advertising cost per thousand target buyers reached by media vehicle.

Percentage of audience who noted, saw, or associated and read most
of each advertisement

Consumer opinions on the advertisement’s content and effectiveness.

Measures of consumers’ attitudes.

Number of inquiries stimulated by the ad

Cost per inquiry.
The fourth point suggested by Kotler (2003) above, a way of evaluating
advertisement efficiency could be done by measuring the consumers’
attitudes themselves. Many scholars have related attitude meant here to
different objects, such as to product (Kotler, 2003), brand (Mittal, 1990),
advertisement (Muehling, 1987), (Sandage & Leckenby, 1980), buying or
purchasing (Phau & Leng, 2008) (Amoroso & Hunsinger, 2009). Some other
researchers as well have investigated consumer’s attitudes toward various
media as advertising mediums, such as VCR (Lee & Katz 1993), television
(Alwitt & Prabhaker 1992; Speck & Elliot, 1997), radio (Somasundaran &
Light, 1991; Speck & Elliot, 1997), print (Haller 1974; Somasurandaran &
Light; Speck & Elliot, 1997), Internet (Ducoffe, 1996; Brackett & Carr, 2001),
mobile phones (Tsang, 2004), cinema (Philips & Noble, 2007), Web and email
(Wang, 2007).
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
38
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Moreover, proponents of the traditional hierarchy framework claim that
audiences of advertising and other marketing communications respond to
those messages in a very ordered way, which are Cognitively (thinking) first,
Affectively (feeling) second, and Conatively (doing) (Barry & Howard, 1990) or
behaviorally third. Lavidge & Steiner (1961) posited the most often cited
model of advertising hierarchy of effect (Figure 2.8). These writers may
believed that advertising was an investment in a long-term process that
moved consumers over time through a variety of step-stair stages, beginning
with product unawareness and moving to ultimately to actual purchase.
Figure 2.8
Hierarchy of Effects model
Source: (Robert J. Lavidge & Gary A. Steiner, 1961)
As also can be seen from figure 2.8, the impact of advertising can be
ascertained from cognitive, affective and conative dimensions (Hutchinson &
Alba, 1991), because it is logical to assume that the impact of advertising
should be measured along with these elements. For example, cognitive
measures are used to determine the ability of an advertisement, or physical
product, or other marketing stimulus to attract attention/interest, create
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
39
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
positive attitudes towards the advertisement, and ultimately generate product
knowledge. Affective measures are used to identify either established or
created attitudes from marketing or advertising stimulus, and attitude toward
the brand (Brand attitude) serves as a commonly used effectiveness measure
(Fazio, Powell & Williams, 1989). Likewise, conative measures are used to
anticipate a response behavior resulting from marketing or advertising
activities. They generally involve some type of behavior intention, such as
searching for additional information or buying/purchase (Brucks, 1985).
Hierarchy of effects model shown just now will be the fundamental
basis for the elements investigated in this research, namely consumers’
attitude toward advertisement and attitude toward brand (Brand attitude). To
understand more about attitude, in the next section, theory and literature
about attitudes will be presented first.
2.3.1. Consumers’ Attitudes
Many things may influence a person’s buying behavior (as shown in
figure 2.7 next), including a person’s own characteristics. And within own
characteristics there are another four influencing factors, which includes
psychological. This psychological influence is also divided into four major
factors: motivations, perception, learning, and attitudes (Kotler, 2003). Attitude
is an important concept in research on marketing and information systems.
Fishbein (1967) defined an attitude as “a learned predisposition of
human beings”. Based on this predisposition, an individual would respond to
an object (or an idea) or a number of things (or opinions). According to Kotler
(2003), an attitude is “a person’s enduring favorable or unfavorable
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
40
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
evaluations, emotional feelings, and action tendencies toward some object or
idea”. People have attitudes toward almost everything, and attitudes put them
into a frame of mind of liking or disliking an object, moving toward or away
from it. Attitudes lead people to behave in a fairly consistent way toward
similar objects. People do not have to interpret and react to every object in a
fresh way, because attitudes economize on energy and thought, and they are
difficult to change (Kotler, 2003).
Figure 2.7
Model of buyer behavior
Source: Kotler (2003)
According to Zheng (1994), attitude is “an individual’s subjective
property”. We can regard it as a construct, categorize it, quantify it, and
compare it between consumers. Generally, one attitude and another are
independent. However, elements that construct an attitude are relevant
(Zheng, 1994). Attitude scales are developed by social psychologists and
consumption psychologists apply the attitude scales on marketing sales. To
measure attitudes, numbers present everyone’s attitudes and differences
between everyone’s attitudes. Zheng (1994) stated four methods to measure
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
41
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
attitudes: (1) questionnaires; (2) indirect tests and subjective tests; (3) direct
observations; (4) measurement of physical reactions. In addition, there are
also four most common attitude scales as mentioned by Zheng (1994): (1)
Thurstone Type of Scale; (2) Likert Type of Scale; (3) Semantic Differential;
(4) Multi- Attribute Attitude Scales.
In this research, as said in the preceding section that the plan for this
research was initially built upon the researcher’s idea to study the
communication result, the effectiveness and/or efficiency of social network
advertising, an emerging method of advertising which uses social networking
websites as new advertising medium. Taking on the literatures mentioned
earlier (hierarchy of effects) as fundamental basis. Therefore in this thesis, the
performance of social network advertising will be analyzed by measuring
consumers’ attitudes post to being exposed to social network advertising in
their everyday life. In other words, consumers’ attitudes will be the dependent
variable investigated here. In addition, consumers’ attitude toward advertising
and attitude toward brand (brand attitude) will be taken into account as
consumers’ attitudes in the study. First, both attitudes will be described briefly
in the next section. Then, definitions of the predictor factors analyzed,
together with the hypotheses proposed for this thesis will be delineated.
2.3.1.1.
Attitudes toward advertising
There is a great body of literature dealing with consumer attitudes
toward advertising in general. As defined by Lutz (1985), attitude toward
advertising in general is "a learned predisposition to respond in a consistently
favorable or unfavorable manner to advertising in general." Prior advertising
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
42
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
researches have shown that the effects of advertising activities are influenced
by the attitude toward an advertising content, the advertising company or
even the applied media (MacKenzie and Lutz, 1989). The emergence of the
Internet as a new medium for communication and advertising as well has
motivated substantial amount of researches that focus on Internet advertising
in the web-based environment. Because of the interactive nature of the
Internet, some surveys report that respondents viewed Internet advertising as
more informative and trustworthy than a demographically similar sample
found in general advertising (Schlosser, Shavitt, & Kanfer, 1999). Ducoffe
(1996) found that informativeness and entertainment are strong portions on
Internet advertisement that interviewees indicate. Ducoffe’s model of
consumer
attitudes
toward
Internet
advertisement
showed
that
informativeness, entertainment, irritation and value of advertisement could
affect consumers’ attitudes (Ducoffe, 1996). Schlosser, Shavitt, and Kanfer
(1999) few years later then reported that attitudes toward Internet advertising
are affected by enjoyment, informativeness, and the ad’s utility for making
behavioral (purchasing) decisions.
Bracket and Carr (2001) then modified several attitude models of
Internet advertising by Ducoffe (1996) and developed an integrated Web
advertising attitude model. This Ducoffe’s (1996) new model (figure 2.9) was
based on the premise that the perceived message’s content (entertainment,
informativeness, irritation, and credibility) of an advertisement affect
customer’s perceived value and their attitudes towards the advertising.
Besides these four variables of message content, the model also includes
relevant demographic variables.
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
43
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Figure 2.9
Message Content
Entertainment
Informativene
ss
Irritation
Advertisement
Value
Advertisement
Attitudes
Credibility
Demographic
Variables
Attitude toward Advertising Model
Source: Brackett & Carr (2001),
As the predictor factors in the model have developed theoretical
orientations that aim to contribute to the understanding of the psychological
process underlying attitudes of consumers favoring the contents of advertising
in a similar particular medium, which is via Internet. Thus these factors
(perceived Entertainment, Informativeness, Irritation, and Credibility of
message content) will be included in the predictor factors analyzed in this
research. In addition, based on the hierarchy of effects model (Lavidge &
Steiner, 1961) that has been described earlier, these factors will also be
searched the relationship with attitude toward brand (brand attitude).
Hypotheses of the relations of these predictor factors will be proposed after
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
44
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
the definitions are presented on the latter section.
Furthermore, Lutz (1985) viewed attitude toward advertising in general
as being directly influenced by general perceptions of advertising. Previous
researchers also considered general perception constructs to be likely
antecedents of attitude toward advertising in general. For example, Sandage
and Leckenby (1980) proposed that attitude toward advertising consist of two
determinants: attitude toward institution of advertising and attitude toward
instrument of advertising. In general, institutions may be seen as
representing a convention, an arrangement, and a solution to a problem
considered important by the society (Sandage & Leckenby, 1980). Here, they
measure perceived purpose and role of advertisement whether it is valuable,
necessary, or strong (Sandage & Leckenby, 1980). In other words, they
wanted to see what the value of advertisement is to the society. In fact, this is
similar to Ducoffe’s (1996) definition about “advertisement value” variable
shown in the model earlier. Ducoffe (1995) defined advertisement value as “a
subjective evaluation of the relative worth or utility of advertising to
consumers”. Because of this resemblance, to prevent an overlap, the last
variable in the model shown before, advertising value, will be substituted with
attitude toward institution of advertising.
Meanwhile, concerning the attitude toward instrument of advertising. In
Sandage and Leckenby’s study (1980), they used it as a measure of how
viewers perceive the execution qualities or techniques used in advertising
(Sandage and Leckenby, 1980). However, the previously mentioned, predictor
factors of message content (Entertainment, Informativeness, Irritation, and
Credibility) have already represented a different ways and techniques of an
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
45
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
advertising can be made. And this can definitely cause an overlap between
variables asked in the questionnaire. In addition, if we look at it from a logical
perspective, an instrument may also represents as how consumers view the
medium used for advertising. Along with this, the measurement can also show
how they perceive the safety of the medium or how they perceive the
comfortableness of being exposed through the medium. Because of the
reason, in this study, attitude towards instruments of advertising will be
treated as how consumers view social networking websites as advertising
instrument. Further explanations and hypothesis for this will be proposed on
the latter part together with all predictor variables included.
2.3.1.2.
Attitudes toward brand (Brand attitude)
If consumers are equally aware of a number of brands in a certain
product category, they will base their brand choice on an evaluation of the
different brands/companies as well as product/service. The result of this
evaluation is called “brand attitude” or otherwise called attitude toward brand.
Brand attitude is the perceived value of a brand to a consumer (Pelsmacker,
Geuens, & van den Bergh, 2007). Mitchell and Olson (1981) define attitude
toward the brand as “an individual internal evaluation of the brand”. Brand
attitude is an important communication objective. Because a brand is stronger
when the differentiation with another brand is bigger. Brand attitude can be
viewed as an extension of brand image in that the term refers not only to
thoughts and feelings about the brand but evaluations and, most importantly,
predispositions to respond (purchase) (McDowell and Batten, 2005). In other
words, although brand image represent what you know and feel about the
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
46
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
brand, brand attitude represent ones appraisal to the brand. How strong are
their intentions to buy the brand, and so on. In this study, consumers’ attitude
toward brand will be included together within the dependent variable
analyzed.
2.3.2. Factor definitions and measurements
In the previous section, the dependent variable measured in this study
has been explained. In the next section, each factor’s definition and
measurements will be presented. Hypotheses in regards to the relationship of
these factors with the consumers’ attitudes will be proposed in the end, after
each factor is delineated.
2.3.2.1.
Perceived message contents
2.3.2.1.1. Entertainment
Entertainment of advertising information is significantly related to
advertising value of traditional advertising (Ducoffe, 1995). Individual’s
feelings of enjoyment associated with advertisements strongly influence their
attitude toward the advertisement (Shavitt, Lowrey. & Haefner, 1998).
Entertainment denotes its full ability to fulfill consumers’ needs for “escapism,
diversion, aesthetic enjoyment or emotional release” which can be used to
involve customers more deeply and make them more familiar with the
advertised service or product (McQuail, 1983). A high degree of pleasure and
involvement during interaction with computer-based media leads to
concurrent subjective perceptions of positive effect and mood of the consumer
(Hoffman & Novak, 1996). An interesting, pleasant and likable advertisement
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
47
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
is considered a positive influence (Mitchell & Olson, 1981). Entertainment
factor is measured with items like ”entertaining”, “enjoyable”, and “pleasing”
(Brackett & Carr, 2001).
Entertainment is also crucial factor for social network advertising. It is
essential that the message is entertaining, and thus immediately captures
online social networkers attention. As most people have a natural playfulness
behavior, creating “games”, “applications” or “gifts“ like what some companies
had done in Facebook may yield high participation from online social
networkers’, because these features can be used to involve customers more
deeply and make them more familiar with the advertised service or product. It
is therefore can be proposed that:
H1a: Entertainment of the message content is positively correlated with
consumers’ attitudes.
2.3.2.1.2. Informativeness
From a consumer’s point of view, consensus exists with the regard to
the ability of advertising to inform consumers of product alternatives so that
purchases yielding the greatest possible satisfaction can be made (Ducoffe,
1995). In other words, advertisement should inform the consumers the most
complete and accurate information of products so that the consumers can
obtain the biggest satisfaction during purchase. Consumers themselves,
report that advertising’s ability to supply information is the primary reason for
approving it (Bauer & Greyser, 1968). Informativeness is measured with items
like “valuable source of information”, “supplies relevant product knowledge”,
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
48
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
“provides timely and up-to-date information”, and “a good source of product
information”.
In any event, consumers of social networking website (online social
networkers) are just like other normal consumers that want the advertising
content shown to them to be tailored to their interest. On top of this, they are
interested in getting messages that are “up-to-date” and relevant to them.
Therefore it can be proposed that:
H1b: Informativeness of the message content is positively correlated with
consumers’ attitudes.
2.3.2.1.3. Irritation
When advertising employs techniques that annoy, offend, insult, or are
overly manipulative, consumers are likely to perceive it as unwanted and
irritating influence (Ducoffe, 1995). Bauer and Greyser (1968) indicated that
when the consumers are annoyed and irritated of the advertisement, the
efficiency of the advertisement declines. In other words, irritation has negative
effects toward advertisement. Irritation scale is measured with items like
“insult people’s intelligence”, “too much”, and “irritating” (Brackett & Carr,
2001).
Social network advertising may also provide an overwhelmed
information that confuses online social networkers and could be distracting.
Online social networkers may feel confused about them and react negatively.
Another point of possible annoyance like unwanted messages, for example
Beacon project by Facebook and spam (sponsored) messages that intrudes
online social networkers’ privacy. Therefore, it can be proposed that:
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
49
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
H1c: Irritation of the message content is negatively correlated with consumers’
attitudes.
2.3.2.1.4. Credibility
Brackett and Carr (2001) added Credibility to the original model by
Ducoffe (1996) because of its prevalence as a construct within other models
(Shavitt, Lowrey, & Haefner, 1998). Credibility refers to “consumers’
perception of the truthfulness and believability of advertising in general”
(MacKenzie and Lutz 1989), whereas Pavlou and Stewart (2000) refer to it as
“predictability and fulfillment of implicit and explicit requirements of an (online
document) agreement”. Credibility of an advertisement is influenced by
different factors, especially by the company’s credibility or the bearer of the
message (Goldsmith, Lafferty, & Newell, 2000). Credibility scale was
measured with items like “credible”, “trustworthy”, and “believeable” (Brackett
& Carr, 2001). In this study, the researcher will assume that credibility of
message content will have a positive effect to consumers’ attitudes. Because
in social networking websites, there are many unauthorized exposures of
“product/brand/company information” that sometimes resembles the contents
created by its own producers/manufactures. This could confuse consumers in
a way that whether these contents should be trusted or not. So therefore, the
more credibility is shaped in an advertisement will make a more positive
consumers’ attitudes.
H1d: Credibility of the message content is positively correlated with
consumers’ attitudes.
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
50
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
2.3.2.2.
Attitude toward institution of advertising
Prior researches have shown that attitude towards the institution of
advertising influence consumers’ attitude toward advertising. Here, they
measure the perceived purpose and role of advertisement to the society
whether it is useless/valuable; worthless/necessary, or weak/strong are
measured (Sandage & Leckenby, 1980). In other words, they wanted to see
what the value of advertisement is to the viewers. Values are the basis of
actions, attitudes, and judgments in advertising as well as in other aspects of
social life (Beatty et al, 1985). Advertising value is defined as “a subjective
evaluation of the relative worth or utility of advertising to consumers” (Ducoffe,
1995). Advertising value of web advertising has shown to have a significant
influence on attitude toward web advertising (Ducoffe, 1996).
In social network advertising, the more a consumer respect and value
the act of the purpose and institution of advertising, it will increase their
expectation and hence easier to be attracted to the exposure, or even
participate like in social network advertising. In other words, when consumers
respect the idea of why advertising is made, the more positive they will on
their attitudes to advertising. Therefore, it is proposed that:
H2: Attitude toward institution of advertising is positively correlated with
consumers’ attitudes.
2.3.2.3.
Attitude toward instrument of advertising
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
51
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
As mentioned before, in this study, attitude toward instrument of
advertising may represent how consumers view social networking websites as
advertising instrument. It is important to know how consumers value a website
as advertising medium. A review of the literature reveals many studies that
examine the advertising effectiveness where the Web is involved. Prior
researches have suggested that in the case of commercial websites, if a
website is well liked, some visitors to the website may be more receptive to
the website's contents, including its advertisements. This proposition is further
supported by studies conducted by Stevenson, Bruner & Kumar (2000). They
suggest that attitude toward the website, which is the instrument of
advertising, can be used in conjunction with the advertising hierarchy of
effects model to evaluate the effectiveness of online advertisements.
Stevenson, Bruner & Kumar’s (2000) measurement for this variable was
good/bad, Like/dislike, dangerous/safe. Their findings suggest that attitude
toward the website may influence the advertising hierarchy of effects. That is,
if a viewer likes the website, he/she may be more receptive to advertisements
played from within the website, and deeper processing of the advertisements
may occur. Therefore it can be proposed here that:
H3: Attitude toward instrument of advertising is positively correlated with
consumers’ attitudes.
2.3.2.4.
Frequency of advertisement exposure
Frequency of advertisement exposure is an important factor that influences
the advertising value for the consumer (Haghirian and Dickinger, 2004).
Sometimes, marketers think that by aggressively bombarding the market with
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
52
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
advertising campaign will reach the highest level of advertising effectiveness.
However, conversely Ducoffe (1995) states that informativeness and
entertainment of advertising information should decline with repetition
because the information will be learned by the audience and thereby
lessening its value. As the quantity of message rises, the attitude of the
individual towards the promotional vehicle also worsens and leads to tedium
from consumers’ point of view (Haghirian and Dickinger, 2004). In this
research, it will be investigated the relationship between the frequency of
advertisement exposure and consumers’ attitudes as such:
H4: Frequency of advertisement exposure is negatively correlated with
consumers’ attitudes.
2.3.2.5.
Consumers’ demographic backgrounds
Besides the above-mentioned influencing factors that are mainly
related to the message and its attributes, among different researches,
demographic variables that are relevant to the study must be included in order
to meet completeness (Lord, Lee, & Saurer, 1995). In examining antecedents
of attitudes toward advertising in a particular medium, prior researchers have
explored demographic characteristic such as age, and income (Alwitt &
Prabhaker, 1992; Speck & Elliot, 1997). Within the model carried out on this
thesis, since online social networkers are the unit of analysis, certain of their
demographic characteristics such as “age”, and “number of social networking
website participation” will be viewed as relevant demographic variables in
order to examine whether correlation existed between these demographic
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
53
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
variables and consumers’ attitudes. For all demographic variables included,
the following hypotheses are proposed:
H5a: Age is positively correlated with attitudes toward social network
advertising
H5b: Number of social network websites participation is positively correlated
with attitudes toward social network advertising
2.4.
Social Media
Social networking websites is just one form of social media that is
available today. In order to give better information of the area studied in this
research, literatures of Social Media by different sources will be presented.
Subsequently, the second part of this section will get in deeper on Social
Networking Websites. And the last part of this section will specifically focus on
Facebook.
According to Wikipedia (2009), Social media are primarily Internet- and
mobile-based tools for sharing and discussing information among human
beings. The term most often refers to activities that integrate technology,
telecommunications and social interaction, and the construction of words,
pictures, videos and audio. This interaction, and the manner in which
information is presented, depends on the varied perspectives and "building" of
shared meaning among communities, as people share their stories and
experiences. Businesses also refer to social media as user-generated content
(UGC) or consumer-generated media (CGM). An e-book written by Mayfield
(2008) suggests that Social media is best understood as a group of new kinds
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
54
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
of online media which share most or all of the following characteristics, which
are Participation, Openness, Conversation, Community, and Connectedness.
Furthermore on his e-book, Mayfield (2008) included the different forms
of social media that have been used and available today, It has shown that
social networking websites is just one small form of social media. They were
discussed as following.

Social networking websites: These sites allow people to build
personal web pages and then connect with friends to share content
and communication. The biggest social networks are Facebook and
MySpace (Mayfield, 2008).

Blogs: Blogs are online journals, with entries appearing with the most
recent first. It is argued by Mayfield (2008) to be the best-known form
of social media.

Wikis: These websites allow people to add content to or edit the
information on them, acting as a communal document or database.
The best-known wiki is Wikipedia, the online encyclopedia that has
over 2 million English language articles (Wikipedia, 2009).

Podcasts: Audio and video files that are available by subscription,
through services like Apple iTunes.

Forums: Areas for online discussion that often are based around
specific topics and interests. Forums came about before the term
“social media” and are a powerful and popular element of online
communities.

Content communities: Communities that organize and share
particular kinds of contents. The most popular content communities
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
55
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
tend to form around photos (Flicker) and videos (Youtube).

Microblogging: Social networking combined with bite-sized blogging,
where small amounts of content (‘updates’) are distributed online and
through the mobile phone network Twitter
(www.twitter.com) social
networking website is suggested to be the clear leader in this field.
2.4.1. Social Networking Websites
The term social network has been around long before the Internet and
popularization of Facebook, Myspace and other popular social networking
websites (Yang, 2004). (Offline) Social network involves a group of people,
shared social interaction, common ties among members, and people who
share an area for some period of time (Hillary, 1955). Social networks do not
necessarily have share goals, purposes or intentions. Social networks can be
places where people just “hang out”, share space and communicate. Thanks
to the rise of Internet, the geographic and time limitations of offline social
networks can be removed online today. Laudon and Traver (2008) gave a
similar definition of online social network, as “an area online where people
who share common ties can interact with one another”. Pew/Internet (2007)
defines a social networking site as an online location where a user can create
a profile and build a personal network that connects him or her to other users.
According to McKinsey (2007), social networking refers to systems that allow
members of a specific site to learn about other members’ skills, talents,
knowledge or preferences, and according to Boyd and Ellison (2007), social
networking sites can be defined as “web-based services that allow individuals
to (1) construct a public or semi-public profile within a bounded system, (2)
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
56
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
articulate a list of other users with whom they share a connection, and (3)
view and traverse their list of connections and those made by others within
the system”.
There are many types and many ways of classifying social networks
and online communities. Lauren and Traver (2008) described a great detail of
five generic types of social networks that are classified on the characteristic of
the communities involved. They are described and given the examples as
following:

General network is an online social gathering place to meet and
socialize with friends, share content, schedules, and interests. General
network communities offer members opportunities to interact with a
general audience organized into general topics. Within the topics,
members can find hundreds of specific discussion groups attended by
thousand of like-minded members who share an interest in that topic.
The purpose of general community is to attract enough members to
populate a wide range of topics and discussion groups. The business
model of general communities is typically advertising supported by
selling ad space on pages and videos. Examples of social networking
websites who facilitate these communities are MySpace (MySpace,
2008) and Facebook (Facebook, 2008).

Practice network is a social network community of professionals and
practitioners, creators of artifacts such as computer code or music.
Practice network communities offer members focused discussion
group, help, information and knowledge relating to an area of shared
practice. For instance, Linux.org (Linux, 2008) is a non-profit
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
57
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
community for the open source movement, a worldwide global effort
involving thousands of programmers who develop computer code for
the Linux operating system and share the results freely with all. Other
online
communities
involve
artists,
educators,
art
dealers,
photographers, and nurses. Practice network can be either profit-based
and or nonprofit, and support themselves by advertising or user
donations.

Interest-based social network is a social network community built
around on a common interest, such as games, sports, music, stock,
markets, politics, health, finance, foreign affairs, or lifestyle. Interest
based communities offer members focused discussion groups based
on a shared interest in some specific subject, such as above topics or
thousands of other topics. Because the audience for interest
communities is necessarily much smaller and more targeted, these
communities
have
usually
relied
on
advertising
and
tenancy/sponsorship deals. Sites such as E-democracy (E-democracy,
2008), Fool (Fool, 2008), Military (Military, 2008) and Sailinganarchy
(Sailing Anarchy, 2008) are all examples of web sites that attract
people who share a common pursuit. These sites are usually
advertising supported.

Affinity network is a social network community of members who selfidentify with a demographic or geographic category. Affinity network
communities offer members focused discussion and interaction with
other people who share the same affinity. Affinity refers to self- and
group identification. Here people can self-identify themselves on the
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
58
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
basis of religion, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, geographical
location and hundreds of other categories.
For instance, iVillage
(iVillage, 2008), Blackplanet (Blackplanet, 2008), and NaturallyCurly
(NaturallyCurly, 2008) are affinity sites designed to attract women.
These sites offer women discussion and services that focus on topics
such as babies, beauties, books, diet and fitness, entertainment,
health, and home and garden. These sites are usually advertising
supported by advertising along with revenues from sales of products.

Sponsored network is a social network community created by,
government, nonprofit and for-profit organizations for the purpose of
organizational goals or a variety of purposes. These goals can be
diverse, from increasing the information available to citizens; for
instance, a local country government site such as Weschester
(Westchestergov, 2008), the Web site for Westchester county (New
York) government; to a product site such as Tide (Tide, 2008), which is
sponsored by an offline branded company (Procter & Gamble). Cisco,
IBM, HP and hundreds of other companies have developed their
internal corporate social networks as a way of sharing knowledge.
Social networkers themselves can be categorized into distinct groups,
because social networkers differ in their attitudes to social networking sites
and in their behavior while using them. Ofcom’s (2008) research indicated
that site users tend to fall into five distinct groups based on their behaviors
and attitudes. These were reported as following:
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
59
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam

Alpha Socialisers – (a minority) people who used sites in intense short
bursts to flirt, meet new people, and be entertained.

Attention Seekers – (some) people who craved attention and
comments from others, often by posting photos and customizing their
profiles.

Followers – (many) people who joined sites to keep up with what their
peers were doing.

Faithfuls – (many) people who typically used social networking sites to
rekindle old friendships, often from school or university.

Functionals – (a minority) people who tended to be single-minded in
using sites for a particular purpose.
Likewise non-users also appear to fall into distinct groups. These
groups are based on their reasons for not using social networking sites
(Ofcom, 2008):

Concerned about safety – people concerned about safety online, in
particular making personal details available online.

Technically inexperienced – people who lack confidence in using the
Internet and computers.

Intellectual rejecters – people who have no interest in social networking
sites and see them as a waste of time.
Dick Stroud (2008), founder of Internet Strategies, a marketing
consultancy, wrote in his paper the five basic functions of a social networking
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
60
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
websites, and these functions have become the generic facility that must be
provided in order to compete with competing similar sites:

Profiles (Public and Private): Profiles are pages that enable
individuals and companies to describe themselves. The profile can also
contain rich content such as photographs, sound and video. The
profiles can be private (only available to approved people); public
(available to anybody as well as to search engines); or a combination
of the two.

Network of Contacts: After joining a social network site, consumers
can identify others (individuals, groups or businesses) who are also
registered on the site, with whom they can and want to communicate.

Messaging: Most social network sites have a mechanism for users to
send messages and append content to their friends’ profiles. For
registered members of the social network, this can become a
replacement for e-mail.

Content Sharing: This includes exchanging messages, textual
content, photos, music and videos.

Add-Value Content:
Increasingly, social
networking sites
are
partnering with providers of content and widgets (modules of computer
code) to enrich users’ profiles. People create, share and discover new
content on their own. They create vibrant and rich cultures across
online networks and use the social tools provided to stay connected
(Solis, 2008). For the most part, users are involved in two kinds of
activities: 1) they create new content by editing their profiles such as
adding photos, uploading music, writing blogs and messages or
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
61
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
providing other digital content, or 2) users browse through profiles
consuming content created by others such as looking at pictures,
downloading music, reading blogs and messages or accessing other
digital content. In summary, social networking sites are large
collections of changing profiles and emerging connections (Trusov,
Anand, Bodapati & Bucklin, 2006).
Figure 2.10
Launch dates of major social network sites
Source: Boyd & Ellison (2007)
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
62
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Furthermore, numerous social network networking websites have been
created, modified, loved and abandoned over the past decade. As seen from
figure 2.10, SixDegrees.com was followed by several other major social
networking websites, many of which pivoted around communal concepts of
race and lifestyle, and included LiveJournal, AsianAvenue and BlackPlanet.
Ryze.com was launched in 2001, and promoted both personal and
professional links between its registered members. Friendster, LinkedIn,
MySpace, Last.fm, Flickr YouTube, and Facebook all appeared within a
relatively short period, and all compiled significant user databases. Each of
these social networking websites swiftly developed unique senses of
community, with Friendster hugely popular amongst younger users, MySpace
virtually embodying the trials and tribulations of new bands, and Flickr
attracting aspiring photographers from around the world.
2.4.2. Facebook
This thesis tries investigate the consumers perception of advertising
forms placed on social networking websites, specifically Facebook social
networking website. Therefore, this section will focus thoroughly on Facebook.
First,
relevant
information
found
about
Facebook
on
its
website
(www.facebook.com) as well as a quite brief historical backgrounds of the
company will be presented. Then, the latter part will briefly present the
reasons for selecting Facebook in this study.
Facebook is a free-access social networking website that is operated
and privately owned by Facebook Inc, and was founded by Mark Zuckerberg
on February 2004 (Facebook, 2009). Facebook is a social utility that helps
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
63
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
people communicate more efficiently with their friends, family and coworkers.
Users can join networks organized by city, workplace, school, and region to
connect and interact with other people. People can also add friends and send
them messages, and update their personal profiles to notify friends about
themselves. The website's name refers to the paper facebooks depicting
members of a campus community that some US colleges and preparatory
schools give to incoming students, faculty, and staff as a way to get to know
other people on campus. Facebook users may choose to join one or more
networks, organized by city, workplace, school, and region. These networks
help users connect with members of the same network. Users can also
connect with friends, giving them access to their friends' profiles.
Facebook was initially designed to enable the creation of college
networks only, and was conceived solely for a Harvard-based user-ship. At
this stage, individuals had to be in possession of an @harvard.edu email
address in order to join. Subsequent to its confinement to the online environs
of Harvard, Facebook was eventually granted greater scope for expansion.
Beginning with high school students, Facebook was then made available to
professionals within corporate networks and, in late 2006, finally released to
the global population. As of today, the company claims to have an active user
base of over 175 million (users who have returned to the site in the last 30
days) (Facebook, 2009).
Facebook Platform is a development platform that enables companies
and engineers to deeply integrate with the Facebook website and gain access
to millions of users through the social graph. Facebook’s website is free to
users, but generates revenue from advertising. With the addition of Facebook
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
64
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
applications, gifts, pages and groups gives companies multiple options for
targeting users through their advertising campaigns. One of the social
network’s greatest strengths to advertisers is the availability of a wealth of
information about its users. The website’s structure encourages people to
register with their real names and put up relevant personal information such
as hometown, favorite books, activities and other demographic information
that advertisers thrive on to target consumers.
For the purposes of this study, the researcher had decided to use
Facebook Social networking website instead of others. The decision of
selecting Facebook in this research were based on the following reasons:

Reach: As Facebook is the most heavily trafficked website among
other social networking websites, making a research on Facebook is
more interesting to do. The researcher hoped that the findings of this
study would be as interesting it is to others as well as for the
researcher.

Data Collection: As Facebook is among the most popular social
networking websites on the Internet, the researcher expected shortage
of information about the website to be less experienced. Business
periodicals and research reports detailing website’s operations are
expected to be easily available online. Traffic statistics, user base
information and other relevant data may not have been easily available
for other less popular social networking websites. Moreover, in terms of
collecting data from respondents, with the help of “canvas” technology
provided by Facebook, the online questionnaire that is actually based
on a different server host (www.surveyconsole.com) can be directly
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
65
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
pulled and accessed without leaving the Facebook domain (as seen on
figure 2.11 next). Therefore, with this approach it is expected that the
respondents’ response rate will increase.
Figure 2.11
Users’ view on the online questionnaire used in this study (Facebook “canvas” technology)
Source: www.facebook.com & www.surveyconsole.com (2009)

Customizability: Businesses have a number of ways to develop
unique advertising methods on Facebook website. Advertising has
more “faces” on Facebook, and thus businesses can advertise through
the creation of applications or widgets that can be added to a user’s
profile in order to provide them with increased functionality such as
entertainment, more information about the user, other customizable
advertising methods include Facebook pages/groups, Facebook gifts.
Customizability is a large factor in successfully reaching out to users on
these websites and less popular social networking websites do not
offer this sort of functionality. Furthermore, as said before in the
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
66
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
previous point, customizability of the website is also an advantage for
the researcher as it will also help the researcher linking the online
questionnaire for this thesis to Facebook’s domain. One of the unique
features of the Facebook social networking website is that it allows
developers
to
create
external
application
or
games
or
etc
(questionnaire in this case), to be accessed directly from the Facebook
users’ accounts, although, such applications may actually run on a
different server. By means of this, like with Facebook’s “canvas”
technology, these applications can be pulled from the host server and
shown, enabling users who log in to Facebook to access them without
leaving the Facebook domain, which sometimes makes them logged
out automatically.

Personal Experience: The researcher has been a user of Facebook
extensively over a quite long period of time in order to connect with
friends, family, and associates. Thus, the researcher was already
familiar with most of its features and was able to use some of this
knowledge in conducting the research. Furthermore, by being a
Facebook user for quite some time, consequently the researcher has
made many friends on the platforms. Therefore, the researcher thought
this network of friends could be utilized as part of the samples
researched in this study, as well as to help the researcher spread out
the questionnaires throughout their networks of friends.
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
67
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
3. Methodology
3.1.
Type of research
In this chapter the research method is explained. For the purpose of
this thesis an empirical investigation was conducted to examine how the
dependent variable, Consumers’ attitudes, which will be represented by two
other variables namely; Attitude towards advertising and Brand attitude
(Attitude towards Brand), are affected by the independent variables namely;
perceived message contents of social network advertising, which will be
represented by Entertainment, Informativeness, Irritation, and Credibility;
Attitude toward Institution of social network advertising; and Attitude toward
Instrument of social network advertising. Additionally, customer demographic
backgrounds such as Age and Frequency of social network advertising
exposure, and Social networking websites (SNS) participation will also be
analyzed the relationship with the dependent variable. This study was based
on survey research so therefore this research employed quantitative research
method approach. According to Muijs (2004), quantitative research is used in
explaining phenomena by collecting numerical data that are analyzed using
mathematically and statistically based methods. The objective of quantitative
research is to develop, test and employ mathematical models, theories and/or
hypotheses pertaining to natural phenomena (Muijs, 2004)
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
68
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
3.2.
Hypotheses and conceptual model
Next are presented the summary of hypotheses proposed in this thesis
based on the research questions and relevant literatures mentioned in
preceding chapter, and then followed by the conceptual model shown in figure
3.1 which can be formed when integrating these hypotheses.
 H1: Message content affects consumers’ attitudes.
 H1a: Entertainment of the message content is positively correlated with
consumers’ attitudes.
 H1b: Informativeness of the message content is positively correlated
with consumers’ attitudes.
 H1c: Irritation of the message content is negatively correlated with
consumers’ attitudes.
 H1d: Credibility of the message content is positively correlated with
consumers’ attitudes.
 H2: Attitude toward institution of advertisement is positively
correlated with consumers’ attitudes.
 H3: Attitude toward instrument of advertisement is positively
correlated with consumers’ attitudes.
 H4: Frequency of advertisement exposure is negatively correlated
with consumers’ attitudes.
 H5: Consumer demographic backgrounds affect consumers’
attitudes.
 H5a: Age of the consumer is positively correlated with consumers’
attitudes.
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
69
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
 H5b: Number of social networking website participation is positively
correlated with consumers’ attitudes
Figure 3.1
Message Content
- Entertainment
-Informativeness
-Irritation
-Credibility
Institution of
advertisement
H1
H2
Consumers’ attitudes
Instrument of
advertisement
Frequency of
advertisement
exposure
H3
H4
- Attitude toward
advertisement
- Attitude toward brand
(brand attitude)
H5
Consumers’
demographic
-Age
-Number of SNS
participation
Conceptual model of the research framework
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
70
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
3.3.
Data collection
This research primarily used survey method, comprised of a
questionnaire instrument consisting variables shown in the conceptual model
before: Consumers attitude (attitude toward advertising, Attitude toward
brand), Entertainment, Informativeness, Irritation, Credibility, Attitude toward
the institution of advertisement, Attitude toward instrument of advertisement,
Frequency of advertising exposure, Age, and Social networking websites
(SNS) participation (please see appendix A). All of these items are assessed
with a 5-point Likert-type ordinal scale ranging from “strongly disagree/very
unlikely” (1) to “strongly agree/very likely” (5). The first 12 questions were
related to how social network advertising’s message contents (entertainment,
informativeness, irritation, and credibility) have been perceived by consumers,
which are online social networkers in this case. Question 13th until 15th were
related to how consumers perceive the institution of social network
advertising. Question 16th to 18th were related to how consumers perceive the
techniques and instruments used in social network advertising. Question 19th
was aimed to provide answers on how often have these consumer been
exposed with the social network advertising. Question 23rd and 24th were
related to provide consumers’ level of agreement with how social network
advertising has influenced consumers’ attitudes, namely attitude toward
advertising and attitude toward brand. And the last 3 questions were aimed to
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
71
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
provide consumer’s demographic backgrounds (gender, age, number of social
networking websites participation).
Since the samples analyzed were consumers’ of social networking
websites, which are online social networkers, therefore the data collection
took place through the use of an online questionnaire (please see appendix
A), with a paid subscription to www.surveyconsole.com that could be
accessed by following a web link, and this link were informed of its existence
to respondents by sending message or email to them. In addition, thanks to
“canvas” technology provided by Facebook, in order to get a high response
rate, the online questionnaire was directly linked to Facebook website so that
respondents did not have to leave the Facebook domain page when they
were asked to fill the questionnaires. Respondents were chosen among
members of Facebook social networking website, however, not all of them
would be chosen randomly due to some of Facebook’s privacy restriction
settings facility that enable users the ability to control message to be sent or
email address to be shown or not, if one is not “connected” with another
person within their network of friends.
Consequently, the researcher had selected many convenient and
accessible samples from his network of friends on Facebook as well as
randomly through friends of friends on Facebook (Convinience snowball
probability sampling method) (Kotler, 2003). Although sample size for this
research was targeted to be around 150 to 200 (Fowler, 2002), however, an
email invitation initially was already sent to 200 Facebook members to ask for
their participations. Hence the final numbers of respondents were expected to
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
72
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
grow higher since the researcher had also asked many of his network of
friends on Facebook to help spread the questionnaires.
3.4.
Data analyses
In order to achieve the purposes of this research and test the
hypotheses, the following data analyses were conducted using SPSS
analytical statistics software for Windows version (version 15.0). In addition,
before starting the analyses, 7 new variables were created on the base of
scale items used in the questionnaire, they are; Consumers’ attitudes as
dependent variable, and Entertainment, Informativeness, Irritation, Credibility,
Attitude Institution and Attitude Instrument as independent variables.
Next, in the first section is presented the descriptive analyses of the
collected respondents. The second part will be discussed the reliability
analysis of the scales used in the model. The results of correlation and
regression analyses as well as the relevance with the hypotheses being
tested are presented in the last part.
3.4.1. Descriptive analyses
Descriptive statistics provide information regarding the sampling
structure and basic characteristics of the subjects. Before going further, a brief
investigation concerning the initial descriptive of the samples collected in this
study will be made (see appendix B). In this study, 241 questionnaires were
retrieved, in which 209 questionnaires were valid. The researcher had to
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
73
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
remove them because most of them were incomplete and thus would cost
more errors if they were put together. From the frequencies, it is known that
out of a total of 209 valid respondents who participated in this study, there
were 128 male and 81 female respondents, which accounts to about 61.2%
and 38.8%. Moreover, all respondents are in age between 16 to 46 years old,
with a strong 59.8% are between 26-35 years old, other 33% are between 16
to 25 years old, while the rest 7.2% are between 36 to 46 years old. In
addition, most of respondents participate in 2 to 3 social networking websites
(about 64.1%), and about 46.9% of respondents encounter advertisements on
social networking websites almost everyday to everyday (mean = 3.35, std.
deviation = 1.470).
3.4.2. Reliability analyses
Reliability is a measure of whether the scales used are reliable or not.
Reliability analysis can be used to construct reliable measurement scales, to
improve existing scales, and to evaluate scales already in use (Saunders,
2007). In this research, reliability analyses were performed to test the
reliability of scales and items used in the model. Any variables having more
than one item to represent their existence will be tested the reliability, and the
minimum accepted Cronbach’s Alpha should not be below 0.6. Otherwise, the
scales used may be considered unreliable to describe or represent the
existence of a variable (Saunders, 2007).
There are 7 variables that were tested the reliability, they were;
“Consumers’
attitudes”,
“Entertainment”,
“Informativeness”,
“Irritation”,
“Credibility”, Attitude Institution”, and “Attitude Instrument”. In the reliability test
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
74
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
of the dependent variable, the 2 items scale used to represent the
Consumers’ attitudes were reliable with the Cronbach’s Alpha of 0.752. Thus,
no further improvement for this variable was needed.
As for the independent variables, the first reliability test to
Entertainment, the Cronbach’s alpha showed a score of 0.720, which means
that no items needed to be deleted. There’s a chance, however, that the
Cronbach Alpha would have grown to 0.801 if one of the item were deleted,
which is entertainment2 (Please see appendix B). But the initial score of 0.720
has already showed that no further improvements needed to be made to this
variable. Thus, all the 3 items used to describe Entertainment will still be
included.
The next independent variable, Informativeness, the reliability test
showed a value for Cronbach’s Alpha of 0. 741. Thus, no further
improvements needed to be made for the 3 items used to describe
Informativeness variable.
The third independent variable, Irritation, the reliability test for 3 items
used in the scale, showed a value for Cronbach’s Alpha of 0.553. However,
when checking the Cronbach’s Alpha if item deleted row (please see
appendix B), it seems that no improvements could be made since deleting
any item would have lowered the Cronbach’s Alpha too. Therefore, although
this value of 0.553 was considered exhaustive, the variable would still be
included because it is the same important predictor as well as like the other
variables that are included in the model, which needed to be searched the
relationship with the dependent variable.
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
75
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
The fourth independent variable, Credibility, the reliability test showed
a value for Cronbach’s Alpha of 0.781. Thus, no improvement needed to be
made for the 3 items used in the scale.
The fifth independent variable, Attitude Institution, the reliability test
showed a value for Cronbach’s Alpha of 0.788, and no items should be
deleted to increase the value. Therefore, no further improvements were made
to the 3 items used in the scale.
The last independent variable needed to be checked the reliability,
Attitude Instrument, the reliability test showed a value for Cronbach’s Alpha of
0.825. An improvement (to Cronbach’s Alpha = 0.829) could be made if the
third item (attitude instrument3) was deleted. However, as it has been
explained before that a least minimum value of Cronbach’s Alpha is 0.6,
therefore, the initial value of 0.829 is considered very reliable, and thus, no
further improvements needed to be made to the 3 items used by the variable.
3.4.3. Correlations and Regressions analyses
3.4.3.1.
Correlations
Correlation is a measure of association between variables. Despite that
in correlations, the variables are not designated to be the independent nor the
dependent variable, however, the researcher will try this approach as the first
resort. In addition, the researcher has noticed some references (Statsoft,
2009; Wikipedia, 2009) that suggested the proper correlation technique
should be just between 2 variables. But when the researcher tried to compare
the results, between when having only two and having more than two
variables in the SPSS calculation, the output showed a completely identical
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
76
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
result. Therefore in this part, the correlation analyses were employed to all
variables mentioned (more than 2 variables at once) to speed up the process.
Correlations were attempted few times to investigate the relationship of
the included variables. Correlation Coefficient will be used to indicate the
relationship between variables. Spearman’s technique correlation coefficient
was applied since all variable have ordinal data. In the first attempt, when
having Consumers’ attitudes together with all the other mentioned
independent variables namely; Entertainment, Informativeness, Irritation,
Credibility, Attitude Institution, Attitude Instrument, Frequency of exposure,
Age, and SNS Participation, the table of correlation shows that Entertainment
(correlation coefficient = 0.525), Informativeness (correlation coefficient =
0.613), Irritation, (correlation coefficient = -0.283), Credibility (correlation
coefficient = 0.500), Attitude Institution (correlation coefficient = 0.588),
Attitude Instrument (correlation coefficient = 0.551), and SNS participation
(correlation coefficient = 0.190), are correlated to Consumers’ attitudes at a
(significance level of 0.01).
Furthermore, given that Consumers’ attitude is represented by another
two variables, Attitude toward advertising and Brand attitude, therefore
another correlations were attempted to those variables. In the second
correlation attempt, when having Attitude toward advertising together with the
previous mentioned Independent variables, the table of correlation showed
the same results that Entertainment (correlation coefficient = 0.4990),
Informativeness (correlation coefficient = 0.510), Irritation (correlation
coefficient = -0.270), Credibility (correlation coefficient = 0.488), Attitude
Institution (correlation coefficient = 0.468), Attitude Instrument (correlation
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
77
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
coefficient = 0.495), and SNS participation are correlated to Attitude toward
advertising (at a significance level of 0.01).
In the last correlation attempt, when having Attitude toward Brand
together with all the previous mentioned Independent variables, the table of
correlation also showed the same result as before where Entertainment
(correlation coefficient = 0.426), Informativeness (correlation coefficient =
0.573), Irritation (correlation coefficient = -0.228), Credibility (correlation
coefficient = 0.394), Attitude Institution (correlation coefficient = 0.584),
Attitude Instrument (correlation coefficient = 0.469), and SNS participation
(correlation coefficient = 0.168) are correlated to Attitude toward Brand (at a
significance level of 0.01).
Up till this point, these correlations may have shown rather absurd
results and rather too broad and general to be interpreted. Therefore, another
approach must be employed in order to generate better results and
implications for the study. In order to do that, instead of using correlations to
investigate relationships, Baron and Kenny (1986) suggested another
approach, which is through the use of regression analysis. Regression
coefficients are not affected by the differences in the variances of the
independent variable of difference in the measurement error in the dependent
variable. The regression analyses are presented next.
3.4.3.2.
Regression Analyses
Regression analysis is the analysis of data aimed at discovering how
one or more independent variables affect dependent variable (Ashish, Sen,
Srivastava, 1990). In this research, multiple regressions were conducted to
examine of the variables mentioned. The general purpose of multiple
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
78
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
regressions is to learn more about the relationship between several
independent or predictor variables and a dependent variable (Ashish, Sen,
Srivastava, 1990). Customarily, the degree to which two or more predictors
(independent or X variables) are related to the dependent (Y) variable is
expressed in the Correlation Coefficient (R), which is the square root of Rsquare. In multiple regression, R can assume values between 0 and 1. To
interpret the direction of the relationship between variables, one looks at the
signs (plus or minus) of the regression or B coefficients. If a B coefficient is
positive, then the relationship of this variable with the dependent variable is
positive. If the B coefficient is negative then the relationship is negative. Of
course, if the B coefficient is equal to 0 then there is no relationship between
the variables (Statsoft, 2009). Moreover, the R-square (R2) or Coefficient of
Determination value is an indicator of how well the model fits the data. An Rsquare close to 1.0 indicates that almost all of the variability with the variables
specified in the model has been accounted (Statsoft, 2009).
Multiple regressions
were performed between all independent
variables, namely Entertainment, Informativeness, Irritation, Credibility,
Attitude toward Institution of advertising, Attitude toward Instrument of
advertising, Frequency of advertising exposure, Age, and number of social
networking websites (SNS) participation) on one dependent variable,
Consumers’ attitudes. Given that Consumers’ Attitudes investigated were
Attitude towards Advertising and Attitude towards Brand. Respectively, all
independent variables were regressed as well with both attitudes.
The first regression where using Consumers’ attitudes as dependent
variable, the analysis output showed that Consumer Attitudes as dependent
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
79
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
variable could be modeled using the parameter used in this model. The model
was significant at confidence level of 95% (significance of the model less than
0.05), has a Correlation Coefficient (R) of 0.724, a Coefficient Determination
or R-squared (R2) value of 0.524, and adjusted R square of 0.503. Moreover,
this output could determine the significant independent variables of this
model, which can explain the dependent variable (Consumers’ attitudes) as
much as 50.3%. Those significant independent variables are; Entertainment
(significance = 0.000); Informativeness (significance = 0.002); Credibility
(significance = 0.043); Attitude Instrument (significance = 0.004).
When the next multiple regression was performed, where the nonsignificant variables were ignored and only the significant independent
variables as well as the dependent variable were included in the model, the
result was still significant at confidence level of 95% (significance of the model
is less than 0.05). The model has a correlation coefficient (R) of 0.704, and
has a coefficient determination (R2) of 0.495. This confirms the model for
Consumer Attitudes as dependent variable as follows:
Consumer Attitudes
= -0.025(0.227)
+ [Entertainment]*0.217(0.063)
+ [Informativeness]*0.316(0.068)
+ [Credibility]*0.172(0.074)
+ [Attitude Instrument]*0.288(0.076)
Coefficientsa
Model
1
(Constant)
Entertainment
Informativeness
Credibility
Attitude Instrument
Unstandardized
Coefficients
B
Std. Error
-.025
.227
.217
.063
.316
.068
.172
.074
.288
.076
Standardized
Coefficients
Beta
.205
.304
.146
.241
t
-.111
3.415
4.663
2.337
3.807
Sig.
.912
.001
.000
.020
.000
a. Dependent Variable: Consumers Attitudes
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
80
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Since the model shows positive correlation of the significant
independent variables to the dependent variable Consumer Attitudes, this
means that the more Entertainment, Informativeness, Credibility, and Attitude
Instrument are emphasized; the effect on Consumer Attitude will also be
higher. The plot between predicted Consumer Attitudes versus observed
Consumer Attitudes can be seen in Figure 3.2 next.
Figure 3.2
Consumers Attitudes
5
4
3
2
1
1
2
3
4
5
Predicted Consum ers Attitudes
Data plot between observed consumers attitudes and predicted consumers attitude after the
exposure of social network advertising
The second multiple regression, when using Attitude towards
advertising as dependent variable, the analysis output again showed that
Attitude towards advertising could also be modeled using the parameter used
in this model. The model was significant at confidence level of 95%, has a
correlation coefficient (R) of 0.662, R-squared value of 0.438, and adjusted R
square of 0.413. The output could determine the significant variables of this
model, which can explain the dependent variable (Attitude toward advertising)
as much as 41.3%. In this model, the significant independent variables are;
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
81
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Entertainment (significance = 0.000); Credibility (significance = 0.007);
Attitude Instrument (significance = 0.005); and Frequency of exposure
(significance = 0.035).
Again when another multiple regression was performed to test the
significant independent variables (the non variables were not included in the
model), the output still showed that the model was still significant at
confidence level of 95%. The model has a correlation coefficient (R) of 0.630,
and has a coefficient determination (R2) of 0.408. This verify the model for
Attitude towards (social network) advertising as dependent variable as
follows:
Attitudes towards Advertising
= -0.421 (0.298)
+ [Entertainment]*0.392(0.074)
+ [Credibility]*0.332(0.089)
+[Attitude Instrument]*0.322(0.094)
+ [Frequency of exposure]*0.075(0.036)
Coefficientsa
Model
1
(Constant)
Entertainment
Credibility
Attitude Instrument
Frequency of exposure
Unstandardized
Coefficients
B
Std. Error
-.421
.298
.392
.074
.332
.089
.322
.094
.075
.036
Standardized
Coefficients
Beta
.323
.245
.234
.114
t
-1.410
5.329
3.737
3.438
2.050
Sig.
.160
.000
.000
.001
.042
a. Dependent Variable: atttitude toward advertising
Since the model shows positive correlation of the significant
independent variables to the dependent variable, Attitude toward Advertising,
this means that the more Entertainment, Credibility, Attitude Instrument, and
Frequency of exposure are stressed; the effect on Attitude towards
Advertising will also be higher.
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
82
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
When performing multiple regression with the last model set, where
using Attitude towards Brand as dependent variable, the analysis output
showed that Attitude toward Brand could be modeled using parameter used in
this model. The model was significant at confidence level of 95%, has a
correlation coefficient (R) of 0.655, a R-squared value of 0.430, and adjusted
square of 0.404. This output determines that the significant independent
variables of this model, which can explain the dependent variable as much as
40.4%. The significant independent variables in this model are; Entertainment
(significance = 0.008); Informativeness (significance = 0.001); and Attitude
Instrument (significance 0.050).
Once more when another multiple regression was performed, where
the non-significant variables were not included in the model, the model has a
correlation coefficient (R) value of 0.639 and coefficient determination (R2) of
0.409 (confidence level 95%). This confirms the model for Attitude toward
Brand as dependent variable as follows:
Attitude towards Brand
= 0.203 (0.265)
+ [Entertainment]*0.325(0.325)
+ [Informativeness]*0.371(0.080)
+ [Attitude Instrument]*0.213(0.088)
Coefficientsa
Model
1
(Constant)
Entertainment
Informativeness
Attitude Instrument
Unstandardized
Coefficients
B
Std. Error
,203
,265
,325
,100
,371
,080
,213
,088
Standardized
Coefficients
Beta
,251
,330
,165
t
,764
3,239
4,613
2,427
Sig.
,445
,001
,000
,016
a. Dependent Variable: attitude toward brand
Since the model shows positive correlation of the significant
independent variables to the dependent variable, Attitude toward Brand, this
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
83
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
means that the more Entertainment, Informativeness, and Attitude Instrument;
the effect on Attitude towards Advertising will also be higher.
In summary, in the first multiple regression that uses Consumers’
attitudes as dependent variable, with an adjusted R square of 0.503, the
significantly affecting variables are Entertainment (significance = 0.000);
Informativeness (significance = 0.002); Credibility (significance = 0.043);
Attitude Instrument (significance = 0.004). The second multiple regression,
that uses Attitudes towards Advertising as dependent variable, with an
adjusted R square of 0.413, the significantly affecting variables are
Entertainment (significance = 0.000); Credibility (significance = 0.007);
Attitude Instrument (significance = 0.005); and Frequency of exposure
(significance = 0.035).
The last multiple regression, that uses Attitudes
towards Brand as dependent variable, with an adjusted R square of 0.406, the
significantly affecting variables are Entertainment (significance = 0.008);
Informativeness (significance = 0.001); and Attitude Instrument (significance
0.050).
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
84
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
4. Results, Discussions and Implications
4.1. Results, discussions and implications
This research analyze the factors that influence consumers’ attitudes
towards advertising and brand attitude, in which will determine the consumers’
attitudes change. Based on the analyses results on the previous chapter, the
table 4.1 next summarizes the findings of this research.
Table 4.1
Entertainment
Informativeness
Credibility
Attitude towards
Instrument
Frequency
of
Exposure
Consumers’
Attitudes
sig = 0.000
sig = 0.002
sig =
0.043
sig = 0.004
XXXX
Attitude
towards
Advertising
sig = 0.000
XXXX
sig =
0.007
sig = 0.005
sig = 0.035
Brand
attitude
sig = 0.008
sig = 0.001
XXXX
sig = 0.050
XXXX
Table 4.1 Summary of regression analyses results
The first part of hypothesis one (H1a), concerning the presence of
entertainment factor in social network advertising’s message contents on
consumers’ attitudes, is supported. In fact, Entertainment has positive effect
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
85
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
also on both consumers’ attitudes variables investigated, namely attitude
towards advertising and brand attitude, In this research, an entertaining,
enjoyable and pleasing will have positive effects on all attitudes investigated.
These findings are line with Ducoffe’s (1996), Brackett & Carr’s (2001)
studies, in which they propose that a high degree of pleasure and involvement
during interaction with advertising media play the greatest role for the overall
attitudes toward them, and that leads to concurrent subjective of positive
effects and mood of the consumer. The same relationship between
entertainment and consumers’ attitudes, particularly attitudes towards
advertising also occur now here in the study of social network advertising. An
interesting implication can be proposed here is when online advertising is
enriched with entertaining elements, it achieves more positive evaluation by
recipients and leads to higher intention to revisit the homepage than the
websites without entertainment features. In leading social networking
websites such as Facebook, companies are allowed link applications to the
website. As far as the researcher has seen, many companies have taken this
chance, and they have managed to execute it successfully. New forms of
“discrete” advertisements are developed in Facebook, from the classic Pepsi
game advertising to pizza hut application ad, which amazingly connects also
to their delivery call center. This means that big rooms of innovations
opportunities are called to advertisers together with IT developers to creatively
expand more advertisements formats that will emphasize more element of
entertainment in social networking websites.
The second part of the first hypothesis (H1b), regarding the influence of
Informativeness in the social network advertising’s message contents on
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
86
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
consumers’ attitudes, is supported. The results also indicate a positive effect
on brand attitude, although however, showed otherwise on their attitudes
towards advertising. This finding is inconsistent with what Ducoffe (1996) and
Bracket & Carrs’s studies, which showed that informativeness factor is
positively related to consumers’ attitude towards advertising. Additionally, this
finding adds to the knowledge of current literature, that if an advertisement
provides timely and up-to-date information about products/services features or
sales available on the marketplace, it seems to have a positive effect on the
their brand attitude. Drawn from there, an interesting implication can be
suggested for marketing managers or advertiser companies. When the major
decisions of advertising program are being developed, company is well
advised to first identify what are their advertising objectives. If indeed the
objective is to persuade consumers about purchasing and repeating
purchase, then
emphasizing the
informativeness
element
within an
advertising message can result to a higher effectiveness. Informativeness
here has proven to trigger ones appraisal to the brand, and thus increasing of
their attitude towards buying the brand (brand attitude).
The third part of hypothesis one (H1c), in which the irritation factor in the
social network advertising’s message contents is being investigated the
influence on consumers’ attitudes, is not supported. The result shows that
Irritation is not positively correlated neither negatively on consumers’
attitudes. The same findings are also found on its influence to attitudes
towards advertising and brand attitude. These findings are in contrary to the
findings of prior scholars researches (Ducoffe, 1996; Brackett & Carr, 2001).
In the context of web-based advertising reactance, consumers tend to avoid
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
87
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
websites that show interrupting advertisements (like pop ups). The perception
of intrusiveness, however, can be decreased if the advertisements are
relevant to the receiver or if they provide a certain level of value to the
recipient. And It seems as if social network advertising has designed new
possible array set of information that are more relevant and acceptable, so
therefore consumers somewhat do not see social network advertising as form
of irritation, insult or overwhelmed (too much) exposures as such like before
with other advertising mediums. This could be due to Facebook’s system that
enables advertisements to be targeted demographically according to the
desired group, and therefore the relevancy of the advertisement is becoming
higher. Moreover, perhaps this is because it is not a secret anymore that
many business models, including ones on social networking websites use
advertising to support their operating costs in order to maintain free
memberships to their users. This emerging knowledge might have shifted the
consumers’ attitudes, and as a result, consumers are more willing to accept
the existence of advertising in social networking websites. An interesting
implication for this is that this condition has actually created a win-win
situation for all participating sides (users, social networking websites and
advertisers). Advertisers must take advantage of this and always be optimistic
and creative in making new formats of advertising, and expand the ad
portfolio that eventually will be successful in attracting the consumers.
Irritation is not a big of a deal of intrusion to consumers as long as it can give
a certain value of something to them, or a relevant information needed by the
consumer.
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
88
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
The last part of the first hypothesis (H1d), where credibility of social
network advertising’s message content is being analyzed the effect on
consumers’ attitudes, is supported. However, the result shows that credibility
only has positive effect on attitudes towards advertising, and not to brand
attitude. These findings are coherent with prior researches and literatures
(Ducoffe, 1996; Bracket & Carr, 2001), which suggest that credibility of an
advertisement would create a positive influence towards the advertisement
itself. Another implication can be proposed based on this finding in this
research. Credibility is based on the extent to which both marketer and
advertisers have the expertise to build a trust in an advertisement. Building
this trust is a process that involves technology and company’s credibility to be
incorporated together in the medium. In social networking websites, as for
example with Facebook that enables the creation of “groups”, “page” and
“fan”, which enable companies to put their (mini) website in a (Facebook)
website, companies can easily create the feel of trust, and generally the better
the appearance would increase better sense of trustworthiness in the eyes of
the consumers. On the other hand, one of the downside of social network
advertising, or on a bigger scale, the Social media, is that sometimes
companies could not control what information is distributed there. Because in
social media, the users can also be the advertisers, and when they had an
unpleasant past experience with an organization/product/service before, they
would also tend to not support the company/products’ successfulness, and
thus might spread a demoting “word of “clicks” within the medium based on
their own freewill.
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
89
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
The second hypothesis (H2), concerning consumers’ attitude toward
institution of advertisement, or other meant in this research as how high is
social network advertising’s value to consumers, has influence on consumers’
attitudes, is not supported. Additionally, the factor does not show a positive
as well as a negative effect on two other attitudes investigated (attitudes
towards and brand attitude). This finding is in inconsistent with prior scholar
researches (Ducoffe, 1996; Bracket & Carr, 2001), which showed a
relationship between value and attitude in web advertising. On the other hand,
the frequency analysis table (appendix B) shows that consumers had given
good scores about advertising value. All three variable indicators used to
express advertising institution value indicated that as much as 41% to 45%
samples, of which more less about 32%-41% were neutral, had agreed about
the institution of social networking advertising is strong, valuable to them, and
thus the needs for its establishment is necessary.
The third hypothesis (H3), regarding consumers’ attitude toward
instrument of advertising, or other meant in this research as how consumers
view social networking websites as advertising instrument, is supported. In
fact, consumers’ attitude toward advertising has both positive effects on
attitudes towards advertising and brand attitude. In this research, it seems
that when the instruments or techniques used in an advertisement is good,
the medium is liked, and the security is safe, it will have a positive influence
on their attitudes (more than 43% samples agreed). These findings are
consistent with Sandage & Leckenby (1980), Chen & Well’s (1999) studies,
which suggest that advertising instruments (Web sites) and techniques
influence brand attitude and attitude toward advertising in general. The
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
90
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
interesting implication here is, how an advertisement in social networking
websites can be tailored to what the advertisers want the advertisements to
be targeted to, or how company’s actual website can be “pulled” (linked and
canvassed) directly into the social networking websites, as such it is
applicable in Facebook. As explained before, it is like having a mini website in
a (social networking) website, or, more extremely explained as having a new
Worldwide Web in a (social networking) website. On the other hand, it is
rather regrettable that this research did not really look into more important
determinants of an effective successful website (such as page loading speed,
navigation efficiency, security, etc (Gehrke & Turban, 1999), because frankly
the research thought that he did not want to go into (computer) technical
matter that involves another area of study that was not his (such as Computer
science or IT). Otherwise this research would have proposed better
implications for this particular predictor cause investigated. Nevertheless, it is
already proven here that advertising’s instrument/media or techniques will be
positively associated with the change of consumers’ attitude, in which of
course (consumers’ attitude) can become the barometer for the effectiveness
of an advertisement. Another conclusion that can be drawn from the last two
hypotheses discussed here (H3 & H4) is that, it seems in this research the
samples have more positive attitude toward advertising’s instrument used
rather than its institutional value. This means that a good social networking
website will have better chance to get more positive reactions from
consumers than other non-popular and less liked social networking websites.
This is in contrary to what Sandage & Leckenby (1980), and Muehling’s
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
91
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
(1987) studies, in which in their research, the samples have more favorable
attitudes towards the institutional value rather than the instruments used.
The fourth hypothesis (H4), in regards to how social network
advertising’s frequency of exposure is related to consumers’ attitudes, is not
supported, and the same result is also found on its influence on the brand
attitude. However, when observing its influence on attitude toward advertising,
the factor is significantly related. Apparently, a high frequency of exposure
does not reflect negatively in consumers’ attitude towards social network
advertising. This finding is in conflict with Ducoffe’s (1996) study that assumes
consumers who are confronted with ads repeatedly are less informed or less
attracted since they are already familiar with the content. The interesting
implication here is that, this will reduce advertiser’s confusion about running
advertising campaign excessively in a medium. This suggests that as long as
the patrons accept an advertisement (in terms of accepting the other factors
such as entertainment, informativeness, credibility, etc), it will create a certain
value to consumers, thus will not become an unwanted intrusion to them.
The fifth hypothesis (H5), regarding to how consumers’ demographic
backgrounds; age (H5a) and SNS participation (H5b) are associated to
consumers attitudes, the results show neither one of the factor is positively or
negatively correlated to all attitudes observed, namely; consumers’ attitudes,
attitudes towards advertising, and brand attitude. This confirms that
hypotheses H5a and H5b are not supported. These findings are consistent
with Bracket & Carr’s (2001) study that presented evidence about how age did
not have an influence on consumers’ attitude towards social network
advertising. On the other hand, regarding the number of social network
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
92
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
websites (SNS) participation, another interesting implication can be proposed
here. Since participating in more social networking websites does not have
any influence consumers’ attitude, therefore advertisers should not be wasting
their marketing funds on running their ad campaigns in too many social
networking websites. The best solution proposed here is perhaps by carefully
selecting SNS that has more number of members, which usually can be easily
identified through a minor facts and figures research on the Internet.
Additionally, since different SNS might also posses different sociodemographic groups of members, therefore advertisers companies are well
advised to carefully selecting which SNS has the groups they really desire.
In conclusion, this thesis has resulted interesting findings for the study
of new hot topic subject, Social Network Advertising. Suggestions for
implications are applicable, especially for advertising agencies and companies
who plan to advertise in social networking websites respectively. Firstly, for
advertising agencies who wish to increase the effectiveness of advertising
program that they will create. In this research, it is proven that in social
network advertising, by emphasizing the Entertainment and the Credibility
elements within the message content of an advertisement will create a
positive consumers attitude towards the advertising. In addition, the frequency
of advertisement exposure as well as the selection of medium in terms of how
good, likeable, and how safe the advertising medium is, will have a positive
effect too towards the ad. This is of course, however, if the level of
advertisement’s entertainment and credibility elements are high enough, and
thus the acceptableness. Additionally, the research predicts that this approach
will be successful if the advertising goal is subjected on a longer-term basis,
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
93
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
like for example to increase consumers’ attitudes towards advertising in
general and reduce their skepticism, create more awareness, or just to remind
consumers about own product/brand (like Coca-cola). On the other hand, the
second implication to marketing managers and advertising companies who
wish to increase the effectiveness of their ad campaign on a shorter-term
base, which means that the advertising objective is to persuade purchase or
stimulate purchase over promotion or sales. It has been proven in this
research Entertainment and Informativeness factors within an advertising
message content play a dominant role on consumers’ attitude towards the
brand, or other meant in this research as Brand Attitude. In addition, better
and safer social networking websites are more likeable, and therefore it is a
crucial part in determining a successfulness of an advertisement. Hence it is
well-advised that companies and advertising agencies should carefully design
their advertising message to stress on the Entertainment and Informativeness
aspects and also plain their social network advertising campaigns to run on a
more popular social network websites.
4.2. Limitations and further research
The purpose of this study was to investigate what factors affect the
change in consumer attitudes’ in the exposure of advertisements on social
networking websites. Although this research was based on real-world data,
the study has certain limitations. First, due to limitations of time, budget as
well as access and connectivity to a broader samples, this study was mainly
focused on Facebook’s social networking website members, and additionally
the researcher did not randomly select participants. This may have created
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
94
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
sampling biases. In addition, different social networking website owns
different demographic groups of samples that would have also formulated
different outcome of results. As a consequence, one of the main issues of this
research is how far the findings could be generalized to the entire population
of consumers, which in this case are online social networkers in the entire
Social Networking Websites (SNS), or the Internet. Secondly, there are many
more of predictor causes that the research have not thought of yet, and the
fact that not all discovered variables have not been measured along within the
predictor variables in this research might have resulted a further limitation to
the findings presented, which will also be the first suggestion for future
research.
Suggestions for future research based on the limitations identified in this
study are proposed. First, different advertising mediums may possess
different predictor variables that will define the effectiveness of an
advertisement. Additionally, different fields of study may examine different
predictor aspects that determine the successfulness of the aimed objectives.
Variables such page loading speed, navigation efficiency, security, and other
computer science related literature, should be measure along with model
used here. Moreover, the scope of research should be broaden in the next
event, in which samples will be taken from more types of social networking
websites, such as Youtube, MySpace, Twitter, LinkedIn, and many more, to
examine the difference or to make a generalization of the response.
Moreover, leading social networking websites such as Facebook, Myspace,
Twitter, etc have started to create mobile (phone) applications, which allow
their users to log in to their accounts more easily. Although those mobile
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
95
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
applications do not expose advertisement as much like it is in normal
computers (because these mobile devices are portable thus have more usage
limitations), however, as the market has responded quite good to these
mobile applications, therefore It is interesting to apply the model used in this
study in order to investigate and compare the results. It is not a surprise if the
future direction of social network advertising will be through mobile devices
(Mobile Social Network Advertising). New portable devices such as iPhone,
iPod Touch and etc, is just a small beginning of something way bigger in the
future.
4.3. Managerial Contributions
Social networking websites are changing the way companies develop
advertising on the Internet. This study offers a clear explanation of the main
aspects that should be stressed and emphasized in designing advertisements
especially on social networking websites, and to avoid elements that might
generate a decline in consumers’ interests and attitudes post to the exposure
of an advertisement. Moreover, the findings of this thesis have provided some
have provided interesting contributions for both researchers and practitioners.
Researcher may find that the model used in this study is fairly a good
predictor of consumers’ attitude study. Practitioners may use the findings in
this research to better design marketing and advertising program with social
networking websites that can create positive attitudes and avoid possible
damaging effects.
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
96
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
References
Literature
Adams, M., “Brands of gold”, Mediaweek, 5(43), 30-32, 1995
Adam N. Joinson, “‘Looking at’, ‘Looking up’ or ‘Keeping up with’ People?, Motives
and Uses of Facebook”, 2008 ACM 978-1-60558-011-1/08/04, 2008
Alwitt, Linda F., and Paul R. Prabhaker, “Functional and Belief Dimensions of
Attitudes to Television Advertising: Implications for Copytesting,” Journal of
Advertising Research, 32 (5), 30–42, 1992
Amoroso, D.L. & Hunsinger, D.S., “Understanding consumers’ acceptance of online
purchasing”, Journal of Information Technology Management, ISSN #1042-1319,
2009
Andrews, J. Craig, Syed H. Akhter, Srinivas Durvusula, and Darrel Muehling, “The
Effects of Advertising Distinctiveness and Message Content Involvement on
Cognitive and Affective Response to Advertising”, 14 (Spring), 45-58, 1992
Ashish K. Sen, M. S. Srivastava, “Regression analysis: theory, methods and
applications”, 2nd Edition, Published by Springer, 1990, ISBN 0387972110,
9780387972114, 1990
Baron, R.M., & Kenny, D.A, “Distinction in Social Psychological Research:
Conceptual, Strategic, and Statistical Considerations”, Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 51, (6), 1173-1182, 1986
Barry, T. E. & Howard, D. J., “A review and critique of the hierarchy of effects in
advertising”, International Journal of Advertising, 9: 121-135, 1990
Bauer, R.A., and Greyser, S., “Advertising in America: The Consumer View”, Boston:
Harvard University, Graduate School of Business Administration, Division of
Research, 1968.
Beatty, S. E., L. R. Kahle, P. Homer and M. Shekar, “Alternative Measurement
Approaches to Consumer Values: The List of Values and the Rokeach Value
Survey”. Psychology and Marketing, 2(3), 181 - 200, 1985
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
97
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Bgamal, “Why advertising on social network doesn’t work”, Blog (Online), Available
at: http://hubpages.com/hub/Why-Social-Network-Advertising-Doesnt-Work
(Accessed on February 2009)
Bitner, J. en Booms, B. "Marketing strategies and organizational structures for
service firms", in Donnelly, J. en George, W., "Marketing of services", American
Marketing Association, Chicago, 1981
Boyd, D, and N. Ellison, “Social Network Sites: Definition, History and Scholarship”,
Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 2007, (Online) Available at:
www.danah.org/papers/JCMCIntro.pdf (accessed on December 2008)
Brackett, L. K., & Carr Jr., B. N., “Cyberspace advertising vs. other media: Consumer
vs. mature student attitudes”. Journal of Advertising Research, 41(5), 23-33, 2001,
Chen, Q. & Wells, W.D. “Attitude toward the site”, Journal of advertising Research,
September October, pp.27-37, 1999
Ducoffe, “Advertising Value and Advertising on the Web”, Journal of ADVERTISING
Research –September/October 1996.
Dunn, S. W., “Advertising: its role in modern marketing (7th ed.)”. Chicago: Dryden
Press, 1990
eMarketer, “Average number of first-party and third-party cookies preserved Vs reset
on US Household internet computers”, 2007d
eMarketer, “Social Network Marketing: Ad Spending and Usage”, 2008, (Online),
Available at http://www.emarketer.com/Report.aspx?code=emarketer_2000478
(accessed on December 2008)
Eric K. Clemons, Steve Barnett, Arjun Appadurai, “The Future of Advertising and the
Value of Social Network Websites: Some Preliminary Examinations”, ICEC’07,
Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA, August 19–22, 2007
Evan, Philip, and Thomas S. Wurster, “Strategy and the new economics of
information”, Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business Review (September-October 1997),
1997
Fazio, Russel H., Martha C. Powell, and Carol J. Williams, “The Role of Attitude
accessibility in the Attitude-to-Behavior process”, Journal of consumer research, 16
(December), 280-288, 1989
Fishbein, M. (ed.). “Readings in Attitude Theory and Measurement”, New York:
Wiley, John Wiley & Sons Inc, ISBN-13: 978-0471260554, 1967.
Ford, K., “How is social media changing the face of marketing”, Hoover’s White
Paper: A Guide to Marketing in the Age of Social Media”, Hoover’s, Inc., 2008,
(Online), Available at: http://www.scribd.com/doc/8979019/Hoovers-WhitepaperHow-is-Social-Media-Changing-the-Face-of-Marketing-By-Katie-Ford (accessed on
December 2008)
Floyd J. Fowler, “Survey research methods” Edition: 3”, Published by SAGE, 2002
Friedman, T., “The World Is Flat, A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century”,
Published by Farrar, Straus & Giroux, April 2005
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
98
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Gehrke, D., Turban, E., “Determinants of successful Website Design: Relative
Importance and Recommendation for Effectiveness”, Proceedings of the 32nd
Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences0-7695-0001-3/99 $10.00 (c)
1999 IEEE, 1999
Goldsmith, R. E., Lafferty, B. A. and Newell, S. J., “The impact of corporate credibility
and celebrity credibility on consumer reaction to advertisements and brands”, Journal
of Advertising, Vol. 29 (3), 43-54, 2000
Haghirian, P. and A. Dickinger, “Identifying Success Factors of Mobile Marketing”.
ACR Asia-Pacific 2004 (Association of Consumer Research), 2004
Haller, Thomas F., “What Students Think of Advertising”, Journal of Advertising
Research, 14 (February), 33–38, 1974
Hillary, G.A., “Definition of Community: Areas of Agreement”, Rural Sociology, vol.
20, 1955, 94-119, 1955
Hoffman, D. L. and T. Novak, P., “Marketing in Hypermedia Computer-Mediated
Environments: Conceptual Foundations”. Journal of Marketing, 60(July 1996), 50 68. 1996
Hutchinson, J. Wesley and Joseph W. Alba, “Ignoring irrelevant information:
situational determinants of consumer learning”, Journal of consumer Research, 18
December 325-345, 1991
Kenneth C. Laudon, Carol Guercio Traver, “E-commerce, Business, Technology,
Society”, 4th Edition, Pearson International Edition, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458,
2008
Klaasen, A. (2007a), “Advertisers can’t afford to quit Myspace”. Advertising Age, p.
29, July 2007
Klaasen, A. (2007b), “Making friends with the social networks”. Advertising Age, p.
14. June 2007
Kotler P., “Marketing Management”. Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey, 2003
Lavidge R. C., and Steiner, G. A., “A model for predictive measurements of
advertising effectiveness”, Journal of Marketing, 25, 59-62, 1961
Lee, Wei-na, and Helen Katz, “New Media, New Messages: An Initial Inquiry into
Audience Reactions to Advertising on Videocassettes”, Journal of Advertising
Research, 33 (January/February), 74–85, 1993
Lovelock, C. & Wright L., “Principles of Service Marketing and Management” Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentince Hall, 1999
Lutz, Richard J., "Affective and Cognitive Antecedents of Attitude toward the Ad: A
Conceptual Framework," in Psychological Processes and Advertising Effects”, ed.
Linda Alwitt and Andrew Mitchell, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 45-63, 1985
Mani R. Subramani & Balaji Rajagopalan, “Knowledge-Sharing and Influence in
Online Social Networks via Viral Marketing”, Communication of the ACM, December
2003/Vol. 46, No. 12ve, 2003
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
99
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
McDowell, W., Batten, A, “Branding TV: principles and practices 2nd edition”, ISBN:
0240807537, 9780240807539, Elsevier, 2005
Mehta, A., “Advertising attitudes and advertising effectiveness”, Journal of
Advertising
Research, May/June, 67-72, 2000
MacKenzie, S. B. and R. L. Lutz, “An Empirical Examination of the Structural
Antecedents of Attitude Toward the Ad in an Advertising Pretesting Context”. Journal
of Marketing”, 53(April 1998), 48 – 65, 1989
McKinsey, “How businesses are using Web 2.0”, The McKinsey quarterly, March
2007 (Online), Available at:
https://www.acceleratedk.com/Public%20Documents/MkKinsey%20Web%202_0%20
Survey.pdf (accessed on December 2008)
McQuail, D., “Mass Communication Theory: An Introduction.”, Sage Publication,
London, 1983
Mittal. B, “The Relative Roles of Brand Beliefs and Attitude toward the Ad as
Mediators of Brand Attitude: A Second Look”, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol.
27, No. 2 (May, 1990), pp. 209-219, 1990
Mitchell A. A., and Olson, J. C., “Are product attributes beliefs the only mediator of
advertising effects on brand attitude?”, Journal of Marketing Research, 18, 3 (1981),
318–332, 1981
Muijs, D., “Doing quantitative research in education with SPSS”, Published by SAGE,
2004
Muehling, D, “An Investigation of Factors Underlying Attitude-toward-Advertising-inGeneral”,
Journal of Advertising, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 32-40, 1987
Nielsen//NetRatings, “Facebook and Bebo: The assault on MySpace”, 2007”,
(Onlline) Available at: http://www.nielsennetratings.com/pr/pr_070628_UK.pdf
(accessed on December 2008)
Ofcom, 2008, “Social Networking, A quantitative and qualitative research report into
attitudes, behaviors and use”, (Online) Available at:
www.ofcom.org.uk/advice/media_literacy/medlitpub/medlitpubrss/socialnetworking/re
port.pdf (accessed on December 2008)
Patrick de Pelsmacker, Maggie Geuens, Joeri van den Bergh, “Marketing
communications: a European perspective 3rd edition”, ISBN: 0273706934,
9780273706939, Pearson Education, 2007
Pavlou, P. A. and D. W. Stewart, “Measuring the Effects and Effectiveness of
Interactive Advertising: A Research Agenda”. Journal of Interactive Advertising, 2000
Pew/Internet, “Social Networking Websites and Teens”, 3 January 2007, (Online),
Available at: http://www.pewinternet.org/pdfs/PIP_SNS_Data_Memo_Jan_2007.pdf
(accessed on December 2008)
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
100
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Porter, J., “Why social ads won’t work”, , 2008, Blog (Online) Available at:
http://bokardo.com/archives/why-social-ads-dont-work/ (accessed on February 2009)
Phau, I. and Y.S. Leng , “Attitudes toward Domestic and Foreign Luxury Brand
Apparel: A Comparison between Status and Non Status Seeking Teenagers”,
Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, 12, 1, s.68-89, 2008
Philips, J. & Stephanie M. Noble, “Understanding consumers’ attitudes toward the
cinema as an advertising medium”, Journal of Advertising, vol. 36, no. 1 (Spring
2007), pp. 81–94, 2007
Razorfish, “The Razorfish Consumer Experience Report / 2008”, (Online) Available
at: http://feed.razorfish.com/publication/?m=2587&l=1 (accessed on December 2008)
Sandage, C.H., and Leckenby, J., "Student Attitudes Toward Advertising: Institution
vs. Instrument." Journal of Advertising 9 (1980): 29-32, 1980
Saunders, M., Philip, L., & Thornhill, A., “Research methods for business Students”,
Harlow, U.K: Prentice Hall, 2007
Schlosser, A. E., “Current advertising on the Internet: The benefits and usage of
mixed-media advertising strategies”. in D. W. Schumann & E. Thorson (Eds.),
Advertising and the World Wide Web (pp. 41-60). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, 1999
Schlosser, A. E., Shavitt, S. & Kanfer, A., “Survey of Internet users’ attitudes toward
Internet advertising”. Journal of interactive marketing, 13(3), 34-54, 1999
Shavitt, S., Lowrey, P. and Haefner, J., “Public attitudes towards advertising: more
favourable than you might think”, Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 38 (4), 7-22.,
1998
Solis, B., “The Essential Guide to Social Media.” PR 2.0., 2008, (Online), Available
at:
http://www.startupsf.com/wpcontent/uploads/2008/06/the_essential_guide_to_social_
media.pdf (accessed on December 2008)
Somasundaran, T. N., and C. David Light, “A Cross- Cultural and Media Specific
Analysis of Student Attitudes Toward Advertising”, in Proceedings of the American
Marketing Association’s 1991 Educator’s Conference, vol. 2, Mary Gilly et al., eds.,
Chicago: American Marketing Association, 1991
Speck, Paul Surgi, and Michael T. Elliot, “Predictors of Advertising Avoidance in Print
and Broadcast Media,” Journal of Advertising, 26 (Fall), 61–76, 1997
Stern, A., “My life on Facebook as a woman and why social network advertising
doesn’t work”, 2008, Blog (Online) Available at:
http://www.centernetworks.com/social-network-advertising (accessed on December
2008)
Stephansen, K. “Diffusion of viral marketing into world of public relations”, Thesis
from University of Missouri, may 2008 (Online), Available at
http://edt.missouri.edu/Spring2008/Thesis/StephansenK-041608-T10105/ (accessed
on February 2009)
Stevenson, J. S., Bruner II, G. C. and Kumar, A., "Web Page Background and Viewer
Attitudes", Journal of Advertising Research, vol. 20, nos. 1 & 2, pp. 29-34, 2000
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
101
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Stroud, D, “Social Networking: An Age-Neutral Commodity – Social Networking
Becomes a Mature Web Application”, Journal of Direct, Data and Digital Marketing
Practice, 2008. Vol 9, No. 3. pp 278 – 292, 2008
Torres, J., “Community Banker’s Guide to Social Network Marketing”, December
2008
(Online), Available at: http://www.docstoc.com/docs/2873849/The-CommunityBankers-Guide-to-Social-Network-Marketing (accessed on January 2009)
Trusov, Michael, Anand V. Bodapati, Randolph E. Bucklin, “Your Members Are Also
Your Customers: Marketing for Internet Social Networks”, University of California,
Los Angeles. Working Paper. September 29, 2006, (Online), available at:
http://www.gsb.stanford.edu/facseminars/pdfs/2006_10-18_Trusov.pdf (accessed on
December 2008)
Tsang, M, Shu-Chun Ho, and Ting-Peng Liang, “Consumer Attitudes Toward Mobile
Advertising: An Empirical Study”, International Journal of Electronic Commerce,
Spring 2004, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 65–78, 2004
Uphoff, T., “Advertising doesn’t work on social network”, 2009, Blog (Online),
Available at:
http://www.uphoffonmedia.com/uphoffonmediacom/2009/2/8/advertising-doesntwork-on-social-networks.html (Accessed on February 2009)
Wang, L., 2007, “The Effects of Internet Advertising Attitude and Brand Image on
Purchase Intention: A Study of Online Users in Taiwan”, National Cheng Kung
University, January 2007
Yang, K. C. C., “Effects of consumer motives on search behavior using Internet
Advertising”, Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 7(4), 430-442, 2004
Y. Wind & M. Todi, “Advertising on Social Networking Websites”, The Wharton
School, University of Pennsylvania, May 2008
Zanot, E.J. "Public Attitudes Toward Advertising", In Advertising in a New Age, H.
Keith Hunt, ed. Provo, Utah: American Academy of Advertising, 1981.
Zeljka Hadija, “Perceptions of advertising in online social networks: in-depth
interviews”, Thesis from Rochester Instute of Technology, January 2007
Zheng, B. X. (1994), “Consumer Psychology, 12th edition”, Taipei: Da-Yang
Publishing Co.
(Online), Available at: http://books.google.com (Accessed on January 2009)
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
102
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Websites
BlackPlanet, , http://www.BlackPlanet.com (accessed on January 2009)
Facebook,, http://www.Facebook.com (accessed on January 2009)
Facebook, http://www.facebook.com/business/?beacon (February on August 2009)
Fool, http://www.Fool.com (accessed on February 2009)
E-democracy, http://www.E-democracy.org (accessed on March 2009)
Internet world stats, http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm (accessed on March 2009)
iVillage, http://www.iVillage.com (accessed on March 2009)
LinkedIn, http://www.LinkedIn.com/static?key=company_info (accessed on March 2009)
Linux, http://www.Linux.org (accessed on May 2009)
Military, http://www.Military.com (accessed on May 2009)
NaturallyCurly, http://www.NaturallyCurly.com (accessed on March 2009)
Nielsen, http://www.Nielsen-online.com (accessed on January 2009)
SailingAnarchy, http://www.SailingAnarchy.com (accessed on December 2008)
Tide, http://www.Tide.com (accessed on January 2009)
Westchestergov, http://www.Westchestergov.com (accessed on August 2008)
Wikipedia,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertising (accessed on January 2009)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_network_advertising (accessed on December 2008)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-commerce (accessed on December 2008)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyves (accessed on December 2008)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixi (accessed on December 2008)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napster (accessed on December 2008)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correlation (accessed December 2008)
http://www.statsoft.com/textbook/stathome.html (accessed on December 2008)
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
103
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Appendix A: Questionnaire
Hello participants,
You are invited to spend a few minutes to complete the questionnaire.
Please be assured that your personal information and answers would be kept
anonymous, confidential and will only be revealed for academic purpose.
Please take the time to fill out this questionnaire as truthfully and as
accurately as possible. Your response would make a great contribution to this
research. I am deeply appreciative to your kind cooperation.
The purpose of this academic survey is to study the area of social
network advertising, an emerging method of advertising that uses social
networking websites as advertising medium. In this survey, you will be
presented with statements and questions regarding your views of social
network advertising, particularly on Facebook. It is important to keep in mind
that what being examined here are your perceptions of all forms of
advertisements exposed on Facebook social networking website (such
as sponsored banners, sponsored pages, sponsored applications, sponsored
games, sponsored gifts, or etc), and not just a particular form of
advertisement from a particular organization.
Please answer each statement by selecting the option that best reflects
your degree of agreement or disagreement with that statement. You are free
to choose from the following answers:
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
104
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
1
Strongly disagree / very unlikely / very… (-)
2
Disagree / unlikely / … (-)
3
Neither agrees nor disagrees / neither likely nor unlikely
/ Neither… nor … / undecided
4
Agree / likely / … (+)
5
Strongly agree / very likely / very… (+)
1. Advertisements on social networking websites are often entertaining.
2. Sometimes contents of advertisements are more enjoyable than other
contents available in social networking websites.
3. Advertisements on social networking websites are pleasing
4. Advertisements on social networking websites are valuable sources of
information about sales.
5. Advertisements on social networking websites contribute to the knowledge
about which brands have the features you are looking for.
6. Advertisements on social networking websites provide timely and up-todate information on products/services available in the marketplace.
7. Advertisements on social networking websites are irritating.
8. Sometimes advertisements on social networking websites insult people’s
intelligence.
9. There is too much advertisement on social networking websites.
10. Advertisements on social networking websites are credible.
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
105
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
11. Advertisements on social networking websites are trustworthy.
12. How likely are you to believe the information/facts shown in most
advertisements on social networking websites?
How would you rate the institution/establishment of social network
advertising?
13.
1. Very weak
2. Weak
3. Neither weak nor strong
4. Strong
5. Very strong
14.
1. Very Worthless
2. Worthless
3. Neither worthless nor valuable
4. Valuable
5. Very valuable
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
106
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
15.
1. Very useless
2. Useless
3. Neither useless nor necessary
4. Necessary
5. Very Necessary
How would you rate the instruments/techniques used in social network
advertising?
16.
1. Very bad
2. Bad
3. Neither bad nor good
4. Good
5. Very good.
17.
1. I hate it
2. I dislike it
3. Neither dislike/like it
4. I like it
5. I Love it
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
107
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
18.
1. Very Dangerous
2. Dangerous.
3. Neither Dangerous nor safe.
4. Safe.
5. Very safe.
20. How likely is social network advertising, to have a positive impact to your
attitude toward advertising in general?
21. How likely is social network advertising, to have a positive impact to your
attitude toward the brands/companies or products/services advertised?
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
108
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
What is your gender?
1. Male
2. Female
How old are you?
1. 15 years old and younger
2. 16 to 25 years old
3. 26 to 35 years old
4. 36 to 46 years old
5. More than 46 years old
How often do you encounter advertisements on social networking websites?
1. Not often (once a month)
2. Once a week
3. Sometimes (once in every 2-3 days)
4. Everyday
5. Very often (more than few times everyday)
How many social networking websites do you participate in?
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
109
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
1. 1
2. 2
3. 3
4. 4
5. More than 5
Appendix B: SPSS Output
Descriptive statistics
Descriptives
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
110
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Descriptive Statistics
N
atttitude toward
advertising
attitude toward brand
Entertainment1
Entertainment2
Entertainment3
Informativeness1
Informativeness2
Informativeness3
Irritation1
Irritation2
Irritation3
Credibility1
Credibility2
Credibility3
Attitude Institution1
Attitude Institution2
Attitude Institution3
Attitude Instrument1
Attitude Instrument2
Attitude Instrument3
Frequency of exposure
Gender
Age
SNS Participation
Valid N (listwise)
Minimum
Maximum
Mean
Std. Deviation
209
1
5
2,95
,967
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
2
4
5
3,22
2,99
2,87
2,87
3,35
3,28
3,52
3,41
3,09
3,55
2,98
2,78
2,77
3,28
3,36
3,34
3,40
3,07
3,16
3,35
1,39
2,74
2,52
,910
1,019
1,034
,926
1,000
1,034
,966
,911
,931
,919
,762
,822
,963
,816
,849
,846
,855
,869
,729
1,470
,488
,580
1,165
Frequencies
Frequency Table
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
111
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
atttitude toward advertising
Valid
1
2
3
4
5
Total
Frequency
14
54
77
57
7
209
Percent
6,7
25,8
36,8
27,3
3,3
100,0
Valid Percent
6,7
25,8
36,8
27,3
3,3
100,0
Cumulative
Percent
6,7
32,5
69,4
96,7
100,0
attitude toward brand
Valid
1
2
3
4
5
Total
Frequency
6
42
68
85
8
209
Percent
2,9
20,1
32,5
40,7
3,8
100,0
Valid Percent
2,9
20,1
32,5
40,7
3,8
100,0
Cumulative
Percent
2,9
23,0
55,5
96,2
100,0
Entertainment1
Valid
1
2
3
4
5
Total
Frequency
15
59
53
77
5
209
Percent
7,2
28,2
25,4
36,8
2,4
100,0
Valid Percent
7,2
28,2
25,4
36,8
2,4
100,0
Cumulative
Percent
7,2
35,4
60,8
97,6
100,0
Entertainment2
Valid
1
2
3
4
5
Total
Frequency
17
71
49
67
5
209
Percent
8,1
34,0
23,4
32,1
2,4
100,0
Valid Percent
8,1
34,0
23,4
32,1
2,4
100,0
Cumulative
Percent
8,1
42,1
65,6
97,6
100,0
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
112
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Entertainment3
Valid
1
2
3
4
5
Total
Frequency
13
63
75
55
3
209
Percent
6,2
30,1
35,9
26,3
1,4
100,0
Valid Percent
6,2
30,1
35,9
26,3
1,4
100,0
Cumulative
Percent
6,2
36,4
72,2
98,6
100,0
Informativeness1
Valid
1
2
3
4
5
Total
Frequency
8
39
50
95
17
209
Percent
3,8
18,7
23,9
45,5
8,1
100,0
Valid Percent
3,8
18,7
23,9
45,5
8,1
100,0
Cumulative
Percent
3,8
22,5
46,4
91,9
100,0
Informativeness2
Valid
1
2
3
4
5
Total
Frequency
8
49
45
90
17
209
Percent
3,8
23,4
21,5
43,1
8,1
100,0
Valid Percent
3,8
23,4
21,5
43,1
8,1
100,0
Cumulative
Percent
3,8
27,3
48,8
91,9
100,0
Informativeness3
Valid
1
2
3
4
5
Total
Frequency
5
31
49
99
25
209
Percent
2,4
14,8
23,4
47,4
12,0
100,0
Valid Percent
2,4
14,8
23,4
47,4
12,0
100,0
Cumulative
Percent
2,4
17,2
40,7
88,0
100,0
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
113
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Irritation1
Valid
1
2
3
4
5
Total
Frequency
2
32
76
76
23
209
Percent
1,0
15,3
36,4
36,4
11,0
100,0
Valid Percent
1,0
15,3
36,4
36,4
11,0
100,0
Cumulative
Percent
1,0
16,3
52,6
89,0
100,0
Irritation2
Valid
1
2
3
4
5
Total
Frequency
6
54
75
64
10
209
Percent
2,9
25,8
35,9
30,6
4,8
100,0
Valid Percent
2,9
25,8
35,9
30,6
4,8
100,0
Cumulative
Percent
2,9
28,7
64,6
95,2
100,0
Irritation3
Valid
1
2
3
4
5
Total
Frequency
1
30
60
89
29
209
Percent
,5
14,4
28,7
42,6
13,9
100,0
Valid Percent
,5
14,4
28,7
42,6
13,9
100,0
Cumulative
Percent
,5
14,8
43,5
86,1
100,0
Credibility1
Valid
1
2
3
4
5
Total
Frequency
3
53
100
52
1
209
Percent
1,4
25,4
47,8
24,9
,5
100,0
Valid Percent
1,4
25,4
47,8
24,9
,5
100,0
Cumulative
Percent
1,4
26,8
74,6
99,5
100,0
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
114
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Credibility2
Valid
1
2
3
4
5
Total
Frequency
10
66
97
33
3
209
Percent
4,8
31,6
46,4
15,8
1,4
100,0
Valid Percent
4,8
31,6
46,4
15,8
1,4
100,0
Cumulative
Percent
4,8
36,4
82,8
98,6
100,0
Credibility3
Valid
1
2
3
4
5
Total
Frequency
18
71
62
57
1
209
Percent
8,6
34,0
29,7
27,3
,5
100,0
Valid Percent
8,6
34,0
29,7
27,3
,5
100,0
Cumulative
Percent
8,6
42,6
72,2
99,5
100,0
Attitude Institution1
Valid
1
2
3
4
5
Total
Frequency
1
37
81
82
8
209
Percent
,5
17,7
38,8
39,2
3,8
100,0
Valid Percent
,5
17,7
38,8
39,2
3,8
100,0
Cumulative
Percent
,5
18,2
56,9
96,2
100,0
Attitude Institution2
Valid
1
2
3
4
5
Total
Frequency
1
37
68
92
11
209
Percent
,5
17,7
32,5
44,0
5,3
100,0
Valid Percent
,5
17,7
32,5
44,0
5,3
100,0
Cumulative
Percent
,5
18,2
50,7
94,7
100,0
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
115
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Attitude Institution3
Valid
1
2
3
4
5
Total
Frequency
1
32
87
73
16
209
Percent
,5
15,3
41,6
34,9
7,7
100,0
Valid Percent
,5
15,3
41,6
34,9
7,7
100,0
Cumulative
Percent
,5
15,8
57,4
92,3
100,0
Attitude Instrument1
Valid
1
2
3
4
5
Total
Frequency
1
30
81
79
18
209
Percent
,5
14,4
38,8
37,8
8,6
100,0
Valid Percent
,5
14,4
38,8
37,8
8,6
100,0
Cumulative
Percent
,5
14,8
53,6
91,4
100,0
Attitude Instrument2
Valid
1
2
3
4
5
Total
Frequency
2
55
90
51
11
209
Percent
1,0
26,3
43,1
24,4
5,3
100,0
Valid Percent
1,0
26,3
43,1
24,4
5,3
100,0
Cumulative
Percent
1,0
27,3
70,3
94,7
100,0
Attitude Instrument3
Valid
1
2
3
4
5
Total
Frequency
1
28
126
44
10
209
Percent
,5
13,4
60,3
21,1
4,8
100,0
Valid Percent
,5
13,4
60,3
21,1
4,8
100,0
Cumulative
Percent
,5
13,9
74,2
95,2
100,0
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
116
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Frequency of exposure
Valid
1
2
3
4
5
Total
Frequency
36
23
52
28
70
209
Percent
17,2
11,0
24,9
13,4
33,5
100,0
Valid Percent
17,2
11,0
24,9
13,4
33,5
100,0
Cumulative
Percent
17,2
28,2
53,1
66,5
100,0
Gender
Valid
1
2
Total
Frequency
128
81
209
Percent
61,2
38,8
100,0
Valid Percent
61,2
38,8
100,0
Cumulative
Percent
61,2
100,0
Age
Valid
2
3
4
Total
Frequency
69
125
15
209
Percent
33,0
59,8
7,2
100,0
Valid Percent
33,0
59,8
7,2
100,0
Cumulative
Percent
33,0
92,8
100,0
SNS Participation
Valid
1
2
3
4
5
Total
Frequency
42
69
65
13
20
209
Percent
20,1
33,0
31,1
6,2
9,6
100,0
Valid Percent
20,1
33,0
31,1
6,2
9,6
100,0
Cumulative
Percent
20,1
53,1
84,2
90,4
100,0
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
117
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Correlation
Correlation 1
Nonparametric Correlations
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
118
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Correlations
Consumers
Informativ
Attitude Attitude Frequency of
Attitudes Entertainment eness IrritationCredibilityInstitutionInstrument exposure
Spearman's rho
Consumers Attitudes
Correlation Coefficient1,000
,525** ,613** -,283** ,500**
,588**
,551**
,095
Sig. (2-tailed)
.
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,172
N
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
Entertainment
Correlation Coefficient ,525**
1,000
,516** -,182** ,355**
,421**
,385**
-,120
Sig. (2-tailed)
,000
.
,000
,008
,000
,000
,000
,083
N
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
Informativeness Correlation Coefficient ,613**
,516** 1,000
-,217** ,468**
,676**
,514**
,092
Sig. (2-tailed)
,000
,000
.
,002
,000
,000
,000
,187
N
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
Irritation
Correlation Coefficient -,283**
-,182** -,217** 1,000
-,327** -,217** -,233**
,088
Sig. (2-tailed)
,000
,008
,002
.
,000
,002
,001
,203
N
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
Credibility
Correlation Coefficient ,500**
,355** ,468** -,327** 1,000
,455**
,542**
-,030
Sig. (2-tailed)
,000
,000
,000
,000
.
,000
,000
,666
N
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
Attitude Institution Correlation Coefficient ,588**
,421** ,676** -,217** ,455** 1,000
,583**
,149*
Sig. (2-tailed)
,000
,000
,000
,002
,000
.
,000
,031
N
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
Attitude InstrumentCorrelation Coefficient ,551**
,385** ,514** -,233** ,542**
,583** 1,000
,102
Sig. (2-tailed)
,000
,000
,000
,001
,000
,000
.
,142
N
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
Frequency of exposure
Correlation Coefficient ,095
-,120
,092
,088
-,030
,149*
,102
1,000
Sig. (2-tailed)
,172
,083
,187
,203
,666
,031
,142
.
N
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
Age
Correlation Coefficient ,005
,042
,030
-,140*
,022
-,034
,194**
,059
Sig. (2-tailed)
,945
,544
,669
,043
,752
,622
,005
,398
N
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
SNS Participation Correlation Coefficient ,190**
,178** ,218** -,095
,057
,192**
,118
-,027
Sig. (2-tailed)
,006
,010
,002
,171
,416
,005
,089
,697
N
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
SNS
Age Participation
,005
,190**
,945
,006
209
209
,042
,178**
,544
,010
209
209
,030
,218**
,669
,002
209
209
-,140*
-,095
,043
,171
209
209
,022
,057
,752
,416
209
209
-,034
,192**
,622
,005
209
209
,194**
,118
,005
,089
209
209
,059
-,027
,398
,697
209
209
1,000
,054
.
,439
209
209
,054
1,000
,439
.
209
209
**.Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*.Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Correlation 2
Nonparametric Correlations
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
119
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Correlations
atttitude
toward
Informativ
Attitude Attitude
Frequency of
SNS
advertising
Entertainmenteness Irritation
Credibility
Institution
Instrumentexposure Age Participation
Spearman'satttitude
rho
towardCorrelation Coefficient
1,000
,499** ,510** -,270** ,488** ,468** ,495** ,100 ,027
,161*
advertising
Sig. (2-tailed)
.
,000 ,000 ,000 ,000
,000
,000
,148 ,696
,020
N
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
Entertainment Correlation Coefficient
,499** 1,000 ,516** -,182** ,355** ,421** ,385** -,120 ,042
,178**
Sig. (2-tailed)
,000
. ,000 ,008 ,000
,000
,000
,083 ,544
,010
N
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
InformativenessCorrelation Coefficient
,510**
,516** 1,000 -,217** ,468** ,676** ,514** ,092 ,030
,218**
Sig. (2-tailed)
,000
,000
. ,002 ,000
,000
,000
,187 ,669
,002
N
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
Irritation
Correlation Coefficient
-,270** -,182** -,217** 1,000 -,327** -,217** -,233** ,088 -,140*
-,095
Sig. (2-tailed)
,000
,008 ,002
. ,000
,002
,001
,203 ,043
,171
N
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
Credibility
Correlation Coefficient
,488**
,355** ,468** -,327** 1,000
,455** ,542** -,030 ,022
,057
Sig. (2-tailed)
,000
,000 ,000 ,000
.
,000
,000
,666 ,752
,416
N
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
Attitude Institution
Correlation Coefficient
,468**
,421** ,676** -,217** ,455** 1,000
,583** ,149* -,034
,192**
Sig. (2-tailed)
,000
,000 ,000 ,002 ,000
.
,000
,031 ,622
,005
N
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
Attitude Instrument
Correlation Coefficient
,495**
,385** ,514** -,233** ,542** ,583** 1,000
,102 ,194**
,118
Sig. (2-tailed)
,000
,000 ,000 ,001 ,000
,000
.
,142 ,005
,089
N
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
Frequency of exposure
Correlation Coefficient
,100
-,120 ,092 ,088 -,030
,149*
,102
1,000 ,059
-,027
Sig. (2-tailed)
,148
,083 ,187 ,203 ,666
,031
,142
. ,398
,697
N
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
Age
Correlation Coefficient
,027
,042 ,030 -,140* ,022 -,034
,194** ,059 1,000
,054
Sig. (2-tailed)
,696
,544 ,669 ,043 ,752
,622
,005
,398
.
,439
N
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
SNS Participation
Correlation Coefficient
,161*
,178** ,218** -,095 ,057
,192** ,118
-,027 ,054
1,000
Sig. (2-tailed)
,020
,010 ,002 ,171 ,416
,005
,089
,697 ,439
.
N
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
**.Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*.Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Correlation 3
Nonparametric Correlations
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
120
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Correlations
attitude
Informativ
Attitude Attitude
Frequency of
SNS
toward brand
Entertainmenteness Irritation
Credibility
Institution
Instrumentexposure Age Participation
Spearman'sattitude
rho
toward Correlation
brand
Coefficient
1,000
,426** ,573** -,228** ,394** ,584** ,469** ,075 -,017
,168*
Sig. (2-tailed)
.
,000
,000 ,001 ,000
,000
,000
,282 ,807
,015
N
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
Entertainment Correlation Coefficient
,426** 1,000
,516** -,182** ,355** ,421** ,385** -,120 ,042
,178**
Sig. (2-tailed)
,000
.
,000 ,008 ,000
,000
,000
,083 ,544
,010
N
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
InformativenessCorrelation Coefficient
,573**
,516** 1,000 -,217** ,468** ,676** ,514** ,092 ,030
,218**
Sig. (2-tailed)
,000
,000
.
,002 ,000
,000
,000
,187 ,669
,002
N
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
Irritation
Correlation Coefficient
-,228**
-,182** -,217** 1,000 -,327** -,217** -,233** ,088 -,140*
-,095
Sig. (2-tailed)
,001
,008
,002
.
,000
,002
,001
,203 ,043
,171
N
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
Credibility
Correlation Coefficient
,394**
,355** ,468** -,327** 1,000
,455** ,542** -,030 ,022
,057
Sig. (2-tailed)
,000
,000
,000 ,000
.
,000
,000
,666 ,752
,416
N
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
Attitude Institution
Correlation Coefficient
,584**
,421** ,676** -,217** ,455** 1,000
,583** ,149* -,034
,192**
Sig. (2-tailed)
,000
,000
,000 ,002 ,000
.
,000
,031 ,622
,005
N
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
Attitude Instrument
Correlation Coefficient
,469**
,385** ,514** -,233** ,542** ,583** 1,000
,102 ,194**
,118
Sig. (2-tailed)
,000
,000
,000 ,001 ,000
,000
.
,142 ,005
,089
N
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
Frequency of exposure
Correlation Coefficient
,075
-,120
,092 ,088 -,030
,149*
,102
1,000 ,059
-,027
Sig. (2-tailed)
,282
,083
,187 ,203 ,666
,031
,142
.
,398
,697
N
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
Age
Correlation Coefficient
-,017
,042
,030 -,140* ,022 -,034
,194** ,059 1,000
,054
Sig. (2-tailed)
,807
,544
,669 ,043 ,752
,622
,005
,398
.
,439
N
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
SNS Participation
Correlation Coefficient
,168*
,178** ,218** -,095 ,057
,192** ,118
-,027 ,054
1,000
Sig. (2-tailed)
,015
,010
,002 ,171 ,416
,005
,089
,697 ,439
.
N
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
209
**.Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*.Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Reliability analysis
Reliability
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
121
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Scale: Consumers’ attitudes
Case Processing Summary
N
Cases
Valid
Excludeda
Total
%
100,0
,0
100,0
209
0
209
a. Listwise deletion based on all
variables in the procedure.
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's
Alpha
,752
N of Items
2
Item Statistics
Mean
atttitude toward
advertising
attitude toward brand
Std. Deviation
N
2,95
,967
209
3,22
,910
209
Item-Total Statistics
Scale Mean if
Item Deleted
Scale
Variance if
Item Deleted
3,22
,829
,603
.
2,95
,935
,603
.a
atttitude toward
advertising
attitude toward brand
Corrected
Item-Total
Correlation
Cronbach's
Alpha if Item
Deleted
a
a. The value is negative due to a negative average covariance among items. This
violates reliability model assumptions. You may want to check item codings.
Reliability
Scale: Entertainment
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
122
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Case Processing Summary
N
Cases
Valid
Excludeda
Total
%
100,0
,0
100,0
209
0
209
a. Listwise deletion based on all
variables in the procedure.
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's
Alpha
,720
N of Items
3
Item Statistics
Entertainment1
Entertainment2
Entertainment3
Mean
2,99
2,87
2,87
Std. Deviation
1,019
1,034
,926
N
209
209
209
Item-Total Statistics
Entertainment1
Entertainment2
Entertainment3
Scale Mean if
Item Deleted
5,73
5,86
5,86
Scale
Variance if
Item Deleted
2,601
3,162
2,902
Corrected
Item-Total
Correlation
,627
,400
,616
Cronbach's
Alpha if Item
Deleted
,519
,801
,548
Reliability
Scale: Informativeness
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
123
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Case Processing Summary
N
Cases
Valid
Excludeda
Total
%
100,0
,0
100,0
209
0
209
a. Listwise deletion based on all
variables in the procedure.
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's
Alpha
,741
N of Items
3
Item Statistics
Mean
3,35
3,28
3,52
Informativeness1
Informativeness2
Informativeness3
Std. Deviation
1,000
1,034
,966
N
209
209
209
Item-Total Statistics
Informativeness1
Informativeness2
Informativeness3
Scale Mean if
Item Deleted
6,80
6,87
6,64
Scale
Variance if
Item Deleted
2,959
2,757
3,213
Corrected
Item-Total
Correlation
,573
,612
,514
Cronbach's
Alpha if Item
Deleted
,647
,598
,713
Reliability
Scale: Irritation
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
124
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Case Processing Summary
N
Cases
Valid
Excludeda
Total
209
0
209
%
100,0
,0
100,0
a. Listwise deletion based on all
variables in the procedure.
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's
Alpha
,553
N of Items
3
Item Statistics
Mean
3,41
3,09
3,55
Irritation1
Irritation2
Irritation3
Std. Deviation
,911
,931
,919
N
209
209
209
Item-Total Statistics
Irritation1
Irritation2
Irritation3
Scale Mean if
Item Deleted
6,64
6,96
6,50
Scale
Variance if
Item Deleted
2,261
2,258
2,049
Corrected
Item-Total
Correlation
,341
,322
,430
Cronbach's
Alpha if Item
Deleted
,486
,517
,343
Reliability
Scale: Credibility
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
125
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Case Processing Summary
N
Cases
Valid
Excludeda
Total
209
0
209
%
100,0
,0
100,0
a. Listwise deletion based on all
variables in the procedure.
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's
Alpha
,781
N of Items
3
Item Statistics
Credibility1
Credibility2
Credibility3
Mean
2,98
2,78
2,77
Std. Deviation
,762
,822
,963
N
209
209
209
Item-Total Statistics
Credibility1
Credibility2
Credibility3
Scale Mean if
Item Deleted
5,55
5,75
5,75
Scale
Variance if
Item Deleted
2,518
2,296
1,928
Corrected
Item-Total
Correlation
,603
,637
,636
Cronbach's
Alpha if Item
Deleted
,727
,686
,697
Reliability
Scale: Attitude Institution
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
126
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Case Processing Summary
N
Cases
Valid
Excludeda
Total
%
100,0
,0
100,0
209
0
209
a. Listwise deletion based on all
variables in the procedure.
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's
Alpha
,788
N of Items
3
Item Statistics
Attitude Institution1
Attitude Institution2
Attitude Institution3
Mean
3,28
3,36
3,34
Std. Deviation
,816
,849
,846
N
209
209
209
Item-Total Statistics
Attitude Institution1
Attitude Institution2
Attitude Institution3
Scale Mean if
Item Deleted
6,70
6,62
6,64
Scale
Variance if
Item Deleted
2,308
2,102
2,125
Corrected
Item-Total
Correlation
,589
,653
,645
Cronbach's
Alpha if Item
Deleted
,754
,686
,695
Reliability
Scale: Attitude Instrument
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
127
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Case Processing Summary
N
Cases
Valid
Excludeda
Total
%
100,0
,0
100,0
209
0
209
a. Listwise deletion based on all
variables in the procedure.
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's
Alpha
,825
N of Items
3
Item Statistics
Attitude Instrument1
Attitude Instrument2
Attitude Instrument3
Mean
3,40
3,07
3,16
Std. Deviation
,855
,869
,729
N
209
209
209
Item-Total Statistics
Attitude Instrument1
Attitude Instrument2
Attitude Instrument3
Scale Mean if
Item Deleted
6,23
6,56
6,46
Scale
Variance if
Item Deleted
2,062
1,901
2,538
Corrected
Item-Total
Correlation
,689
,763
,610
Cronbach's
Alpha if Item
Deleted
,753
,673
,829
Regression analysis
Regression 1a
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
128
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Variables Entered/Removedb
Model
1
Variables
Entered
SNS
Participatio
n,
Credibility,
Frequency
of
exposure,
Age,
Irritation,
Entertainm
ent,
Attitude
Institution,
Attitude
Instrumen
t,
Informative
a
ness
Variables
Removed
Method
.
Enter
a. All requested variables entered.
b. Dependent Variable: Consumers Attitudes
Model Summary
Model
1
R
R Square
,724a
,524
Adjusted
R Square
,503
Std. Error of
the Estimate
,5927
a. Predictors: (Constant), SNS Participation, Credibility,
Frequency of exposure, Age, Irritation, Entertainment,
Attitude Institution, Attitude Instrument, Informativeness
ANOVAb
Model
1
Regression
Residual
Total
Sum of
Squares
77,035
69,914
146,950
df
9
199
208
Mean Square
8,559
,351
F
24,363
Sig.
,000a
a. Predictors: (Constant), SNS Participation, Credibility, Frequency of exposure, Age,
Irritation, Entertainment, Attitude Institution, Attitude Instrument, Informativeness
b. Dependent Variable: Consumers Attitudes
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
129
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Coefficientsa
Model
1
(Constant)
Entertainment
Informativeness
Irritation
Credibility
Attitude Institution
Attitude Instrument
Frequency of exposure
Age
SNS Participation
Unstandardized
Coefficients
B
Std. Error
,428
,439
,227
,064
,230
,074
-,106
,067
,153
,075
,136
,087
,240
,082
,052
,029
-,119
,073
,028
,036
Standardized
Coefficients
Beta
,215
,222
-,085
,130
,114
,201
,091
-,082
,039
t
,974
3,549
3,093
-1,597
2,040
1,574
2,936
1,780
-1,619
,767
Sig.
,331
,000
,002
,112
,043
,117
,004
,077
,107
,444
a. Dependent Variable: Consumers Attitudes
Regression 1b
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
130
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Variables Entered/Removedb
Model
1
Variables
Entered
Attitude
Instrumen
t,
Entertainm
ent,
Credibility,
Informative
a
ness
Variables
Removed
Method
.
Enter
a. All requested variables entered.
b. Dependent Variable: Consumers Attitudes
Model Summary
Model
1
R
.704a
Adjusted
R Square
.485
R Square
.495
Std. Error of
the Estimate
.6030
a. Predictors: (Constant), Attitude Instrument,
Entertainment, Credibility, Informativeness
ANOVAb
Model
1
Regression
Residual
Total
Sum of
Squares
72.770
74.180
146.950
df
4
204
208
Mean Square
18.192
.364
F
50.031
Sig.
.000a
a. Predictors: (Constant), Attitude Instrument, Entertainment, Credibility,
Informativeness
b. Dependent Variable: Consumers Attitudes
Coefficientsa
Model
1
(Constant)
Entertainment
Informativeness
Credibility
Attitude Instrument
Unstandardized
Coefficients
B
Std. Error
-.025
.227
.217
.063
.316
.068
.172
.074
.288
.076
Standardized
Coefficients
Beta
.205
.304
.146
.241
t
-.111
3.415
4.663
2.337
3.807
Sig.
.912
.001
.000
.020
.000
a. Dependent Variable: Consumers Attitudes
Regression 2a
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
131
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Variables Entered/Removedb
Model
1
Variables
Entered
SNS
Participatio
n,
Credibility,
Frequency
of
exposure,
Age,
Irritation,
Entertainm
ent,
Attitude
Institution,
Attitude
Instrumen
t,
Informative
a
ness
Variables
Removed
Method
.
Enter
a. All requested variables entered.
b. Dependent Variable: atttitude toward advertising
Model Summary
Model
1
R
R Square
,662a
,438
Adjusted
R Square
,413
Std. Error of
the Estimate
,741
a. Predictors: (Constant), SNS Participation, Credibility,
Frequency of exposure, Age, Irritation, Entertainment,
Attitude Institution, Attitude Instrument, Informativeness
ANOVAb
Model
1
Regression
Residual
Total
Sum of
Squares
85,142
109,280
194,421
df
9
199
208
Mean Square
9,460
,549
F
17,227
Sig.
,000a
a. Predictors: (Constant), SNS Participation, Credibility, Frequency of exposure, Age,
Irritation, Entertainment, Attitude Institution, Attitude Instrument, Informativeness
b. Dependent Variable: atttitude toward advertising
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
132
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Coefficientsa
Model
1
(Constant)
Entertainment
Informativeness
Irritation
Credibility
Attitude Institution
Attitude Instrument
Frequency of exposure
Age
SNS Participation
Unstandardized
Coefficients
B
Std. Error
,227
,549
,309
,080
,171
,093
-,135
,083
,253
,094
-,001
,108
,289
,102
,078
,037
-,115
,092
,042
,045
Standardized
Coefficients
Beta
,254
,144
-,093
,187
-,001
,210
,119
-,069
,051
t
,414
3,863
1,844
-1,617
2,707
-,013
2,824
2,127
-1,251
,929
Sig.
,680
,000
,067
,107
,007
,990
,005
,035
,212
,354
a. Dependent Variable: atttitude toward advertising
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
133
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Regression 2b
Variables Entered/Removedb
Model
1
Variables
Entered
Frequency
of
exposure,
Credibility,
Entertainm
ent,
Attitude a
Instrument
Variables
Removed
Method
.
Enter
a. All requested variables entered.
b. Dependent Variable: atttitude toward advertising
Model Summary
Model
1
R
.639a
R Square
.408
Adjusted
R Square
.397
Std. Error of
the Estimate
.751
a. Predictors: (Constant), Frequency of exposure,
Credibility, Entertainment, Attitude Instrument
ANOVAb
Model
1
Regression
Residual
Total
Sum of
Squares
79.391
115.031
194.421
df
4
204
208
Mean Square
19.848
.564
F
35.199
Sig.
.000a
a. Predictors: (Constant), Frequency of exposure, Credibility, Entertainment, Attitude
Instrument
b. Dependent Variable: atttitude toward advertising
Coefficientsa
Model
1
(Constant)
Entertainment
Credibility
Attitude Instrument
Frequency of exposure
Unstandardized
Coefficients
B
Std. Error
-.421
.298
.392
.074
.332
.089
.322
.094
.075
.036
Standardized
Coefficients
Beta
.323
.245
.234
.114
t
-1.410
5.329
3.737
3.438
2.050
Sig.
.160
.000
.000
.001
.042
a. Dependent Variable: atttitude toward advertising
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
134
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Regression 3a
Variables Entered/Removedb
Model
1
Variables
Entered
SNS
Participatio
n,
Credibility,
Frequency
of
exposure,
Age,
Irritation,
Attitude
Institution,
Entertainm
ent,
Attitude
Instrumen
t,
Informative
a
ness
Variables
Removed
Method
.
Enter
a. All requested variables entered.
b. Dependent Variable: attitude toward brand
Model Summary
Model
1
R
R Square
,655a
,430
Adjusted
R Square
,404
Std. Error of
the Estimate
,703
a. Predictors: (Constant), SNS Participation, Credibility,
Frequency of exposure, Age, Irritation, Attitude
Institution, Entertainment, Attitude Instrument,
Informativeness
ANOVAb
Model
1
Regression
Residual
Total
Sum of
Squares
74,082
98,349
172,431
df
9
199
208
Mean Square
8,231
,494
F
16,655
Sig.
,000a
a. Predictors: (Constant), SNS Participation, Credibility, Frequency of exposure, Age,
Irritation, Attitude Institution, Entertainment, Attitude Instrument, Informativeness
b. Dependent Variable: attitude toward brand
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
135
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Coefficientsa
Model
1
(Constant)
Entertainment
Informativeness
Irritation
Credibility
Attitude Institution
Attitude Instrument
Frequency of exposure
Age
SNS Participation
Unstandardized
Coefficients
B
Std. Error
,628
,521
,274
,103
,288
,088
-,078
,079
,052
,089
,145
,076
,191
,097
,026
,035
-,123
,087
,013
,043
Standardized
Coefficients
Beta
,211
,257
-,057
,041
,127
,148
,043
-,078
,017
t
1,207
2,668
3,273
-,988
,587
1,912
1,975
,759
-1,411
,313
Sig.
,229
,008
,001
,324
,558
,057
,050
,449
,160
,754
a. Dependent Variable: attitude toward brand
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
136
Faculty of Economics and Business: Universiteit van Amsterdam
Regression 3b
Variables Entered/Removedb
Model
1
Variables
Entered
Attitude
Instrumen
t,
Informative
ness,
Entertainm
a
ent
Variables
Removed
Method
.
Enter
a. All requested variables entered.
b. Dependent Variable: attitude toward brand
Model Summary
Model
1
R
,639a
R Square
,409
Adjusted
R Square
,400
Std. Error of
the Estimate
,705
a. Predictors: (Constant), Attitude Instrument,
Informativeness, Entertainment
ANOVAb
Model
1
Regression
Residual
Total
Sum of
Squares
70,486
101,944
172,431
df
3
205
208
Mean Square
23,495
,497
F
47,247
Sig.
,000a
a. Predictors: (Constant), Attitude Instrument, Informativeness, Entertainment
b. Dependent Variable: attitude toward brand
Coefficientsa
Model
1
(Constant)
Entertainment
Informativeness
Attitude Instrument
Unstandardized
Coefficients
B
Std. Error
,203
,265
,325
,100
,371
,080
,213
,088
Standardized
Coefficients
Beta
,251
,330
,165
t
,764
3,239
4,613
2,427
Sig.
,445
,001
,000
,016
a. Dependent Variable: attitude toward brand
Author: A. Yudhokesumo________________________________________________ ________________
137