Download Islamic Tradition and its Defining Characteristics

Volume 3, Issue 1
Journal of Islamic Thought and Civilization
Spring 2013
Islamic Tradition and its Defining Characteristics
Dr. Humaira Ahmad
Abstract
Tradition conveys the meanings of connectedness to past and transmission of
knowledge, practice, laws, and many other elements of both an oral and written
nature. “Islamic Tradition” is no different from the general definition of
‘tradition’. Understood in three different meanings, though interlinked, Islamic
Traditionis a big circle which engulfs many traditions grown over some
fourteen centuries inhabited nearly in every corner of the globe. Originating
from the roots of divine transcendent, it spreads like a tree having many
branches ranging from intellectual to mystical and from law to art and culture.
Exhibiting the characteristics of assimilation, flexibility and adaptability,
Islamic tradition has maintained its uniqueness and distinction among the
world’s religious traditions. Despite political fragmentation, theological
differences, and ethnic distinctions, Islamic tradition has maintained its unity of
the Islamic community. This article aims to introduce the various aspects of
Islamic tradition and their development over the time. It is also an effort to
highlight the distinctive features of Islamic Tradition and different
“Traditionalist Schools”.
Keywords: Hadith, Qur’an, Transcendent, Islamic Tradition, Traditional Schools
Introduction
Tradition means many things. In its plain sense, it means simply a tradium 92 ; it is
anything which is transmitted, passed or handed down from past to the present, from one
generation to another generation, is considered authoritative, or deferred without
argument.93 Tradition includes all that, a society of a given time possesses and which
already existed.94
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, an eminent representative of “Traditionalist School” 95 in modern
and postmodern world has put tradition on much higher place than confining it to
customs and norms only. He has defined tradition as having its “origin in divine”96
92
The Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed., s.v. “Tradition.”
Edward Shils, Tradition (London: Faber & Faber limited, 1981), 12;Harry B. Acton has defined tradition a
belief or practice transmitted from one generation to another and or accepted as authoritative, or deferred
without argument. (Harry B. Porter, “Tradition and some other forms of Order,” Proceedings of the
Aristotelian Society, LIII [1952-54], 2); “It is handing down, delivery, especially oral delivery, fact handed
down from one to another, or from generation to generation; transmission of statements, beliefs, rules,
customs, or the like.” (The Oxford English Dictionary,s.v. “Tradition.”)
94
Ibid.
95
Around the 19th century in Europe there rose a reaction against modernism and it took various forms. One
form of this reaction was due to the inspiration of the orient and this motivated many thinkers to peruse the
concept of esoteric dimension of tradition which was more prevalent in the Orient. Thinkers in this School of
thought advocated that “tradition is the continuity of revelation: an uninterrupted transmission, through
innumerable generations, of the spiritual and cosmological principles, sciences and laws resulting from
revealed religion: nothing is neglected, from the establishment of social orders and codes of conduct to the
canons regulating the arts and architecture, ornamentation and dress. Personalities in this School of thought
include Rene Guenon, Ananda Commaraswamy, Martin Lings, Frithjof Schuon, and Seyyed Hossein Nasr,
etc.
96
“Tradition means truth or principles of a divine origin revealed or unveiled to mankind and, in fact, a whole
cosmic sector through various figures envisaged as messengers, prophets, avatars, the Logos or other
93
58
Volume 3, Issue 1
Journal of Islamic Thought and Civilization
Spring 2013
The one who adheres to tradition is called ‘traditional’97 and the system where adherence
to traditional doctrine or theory or submission to the authority of tradition is known as
“traditionalism.”98 One who belongs to traditionalism is nominated as ‘traditionalist.’99
The word traditional, traditionist and traditionalist are used in same meanings.100
Tradition is closely linked to religion. A religion is founded first by revelation and it is
passed on through tradition. All religions are traditions in this sense. Tradition in its
meaning contain the element of transmission and religion implies in its root meaning
“binding.” 101 In this sense religion can be considered as the origin of tradition which
through revelation manifests certain principles and truths through revelation and whose
application then comprise tradition.102
A society is nominated the traditional one which is occupied with traditions. Almost
every society is equipped with certain traditions whether modern or traditional. However,
the distinction between “modern" and "traditional" lies in the functional authority of
tradition in the traditional society.
The differentiation between modern and traditional society does not necessarily mean
that modern or modernizing societies are tradition-less or within them there is no
attachment to customs and norms of the past or to various symbols of collective identity
with strong orientations to the past. “It means, rather, that modernization has greatly
weakened one specific aspect of traditionality---namely, the legitimation of social,
political, and cultural orders in terms of some combination of “pastness,” “sacredness,”
and their symbolic and structural derivatives.
Before the advent of modernity and modernism almost all societies were called as
traditional with little difference of more or less role of tradition (either the role of
religious tradition or role of local norms, customs and folks).The epoch of modernity
changed the ways of thinking and approach to different domains of life and religion. This
transition from traditional to modernity entailed a break from the past; in some conditions
it was not a radical one though as it added new paradigms to the tradition and defining
the values and norms in new contexts which did not imply disappearance of the past. But
in some conditions it completely overthrew the past. It is important to note that in all of
these conditions traditionalists in societies undergoing rapid change understood
themselves to be conservators of values and what is valued from the past. However they
always tended to oppose the break that would decisively overthrow the authority of the
past. Hence in the opinion of Graham, “traditionalism does not necessarily involve the
attitude of conservatism or opposition to change in political, social, or religious life;
transmitting agencies, along with all ramifications and applications of these principles in different realms
including law and social structure, art, symbolism, the sciences, and embracing of course Supreme knowledge
along with the means for its attainment” [Knowledge and Sacred, 67-68; Victor Danner, “Religion and
Tradition,” in Quest of the Sacred: the Modern World in the Light of the Tradition,ed. S.H. Nasr & K. O
Brien, (Lahore: Suhail Academy, 2001), 22-23]
97
The Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed., s.v.“Traditionalism.”
98
Ibid.
99
Ibid., 354-355.
100
Ibid., 354-355.
101
Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed., s.v. “Religion.”
102
Schuon says, “Religion is that which binds man to Heaven and engages his whole being; as for the word
‘traditio,’ it is related to a more outward and sometimes fragmentary reality, besides suggesting a
retrospective outlook. At its birth a religion ‘binds’ men to Heaven from the moment of its first revelation,
but it does not become a ‘tradition’, or admit more than one ‘tradition’, till two or three generations later.”
(FrithjofSchuon, Light on the Ancient Worlds, “144); Knowledge and the Sacred, 78-79.
59
Volume 3, Issue 1
Journal of Islamic Thought and Civilization
Spring 2013
traditions may serve equally well as the bases of reform and innovation or as the grounds
for defense of the status quo.” 103
Even though no society in the modern age is without an element of tradition and
traditionalism, still, Muslim society is the one in which tradition plays a remarkable role
from the advanced industrial societies that have cultivated “modernity” and perceive
themselves as nontraditional, modern or postindustrial.
In what meanings Islamic Tradition is being understood? What features do constitute
Islamic Tradition and how it is distinctive from the other religious traditions of the
world? The following discourse is an effort to answer these questions.
Islamic Tradition
The term ‘Islamic Tradition’ is usually understood in three meanings; firstly, main
streamline of orthodox beliefs in all aspects of Islam whether exoteric or esoteric;
secondly, narrations of the Holy Prophet’s (SAW) sayings, deeds are also known as
traditions of the Holy Prophet (SAW);104 thirdly, Islamic tradition has acquired special
meanings in the writings of the traditionalist school. Here, Islamic Tradition would be
dealt with in all of these meanings. Islamic Tradition must be distinguished from words
like fundamentalism, conservatism and fanaticism used in popular media to portray
Islamic Tradition these days.
“Islamic tradition is al-din at once, which embraces all aspects of religion, based upon sacred,
divine models. In its every aspect and streamline, there is a chain which relates each period,
episode stages of life and thought in the traditional world to the Origin. Islamic tradition, therefore,
is a like a tree, a single tree of Divine Origin, the roots of which are sunk through revelation in the
Divine nature and form which the trunk and branches have grown over ages. At the heart of the tree
of tradition resides revelation, and its sap consists of that grace or barakah which, originating with
the revelation, makes possible the continuity of the life of the tree. Islamic tradition implies the
sacred, the eternal, the immutable Truth; the perennial wisdom, as well as the continuous
application of its immutable principles to various conditions of space and time.”105
The “sense of connectedness,” or ittisaliyah --- the need or desire for personal connection
(ittisal) across the generations with the time and the personages of Islamic origins makes
Islamic Tradition very distinctive and pervasive among other traditions. This is
something that has been a persistent value in Muslim thought and institutions over the
centuries.106
Islam is the last revealed religion which established a religion on earth for all107 and
would be manifested before the closing of the ages. It is the greatest representative and
personification of monotheistic traditions in the world. At the heart of the Islamic
tradition stands the reality of God, “the One,108 the Absolute 109 and the Infinite,110 the
103
William A. Graham, “Traditionalism in Islam: An Essay in Interpretation,” 499.
TheOxford English Dictionary, s.v. “Tradition.”
Hossein Nasr, Traditional Islam in the Modern World, (Lahore: Suhail Academy, 1997), 13.
106
William A. Graham, “Traditionalism in Islam: An Essay in Interpretation,” Journal of Interdisciplinary
History 23, no. 3, Religion and History (1993):507; Islamic Tradition in all its forms requires the
connectedness whether in Hadith, Jurisprudence or history. It is all about continuity and this chain of
continuity is linked to transcendent.
107
al Baqarah, 2:133; al-An’ām, 6: 14
108
al Baqarah, 2:163 ;al An’ām, 6:102; Tā hā, 20: 98; Hajj, 22:62; Al-Qasas, 28 :70; Al-Ghafir, 40:62.
109
al-Ikhlas, 112:1-4.
110
Ibrāhīm, 14:34; An-Nahl, 16:18.
104
105
60
Volume 3, Issue 1
Journal of Islamic Thought and Civilization
Spring 2013
Infinitely Good and All Merciful,111 the One who is at once transcendent and greater than
all we can conceive or imagine 112 as mentioned at different places in the Qur’ān.”113 The
idea of tawhid (monotheism, oneness) makes Islam distinctive from other monotheistic
traditions of Judaism and Christian tradition as in Jewish faith, salvation is reliant upon a
certain ethnocentrism revolving around the Chosen people114, and this is in turn confines
monotheistic concept to them; in Christianity salvation is bound up with a certain
Christocentrism that leads to the worship of the God-Man, who in his turn detracts, from
the absoluteness of the One.115 The concept of oneness of Allah or tawhid is a radius
around which the whole Islamic tradition is centered and this concept is the only reason
of uniqueness, idealism, authenticity and dignity of the Islamic tradition.
Qur’ān is that last divine revelation,116 which is the spoken word of God, revealed on
Prophet Muhammad (SAW) 117 and is the fountainhead of Islamic tradition. Both the
meanings and the text are considered to be the eternal word of God, 118 uncreated, as
everything else is connected with it.119 In every way, the soul of the traditional Muslim is
like a mosaic made up of phrases of the Qur’ān, which are repeated throughout life. It is
transmitted from the Prophet (SAW) to us in its original form and everything of Islamic
Tradition ushers from the Qur’ān.
While Islam considers itself the last religion to be revealed to mankind on earth, it also
sees in the Messenger and Prophet Muhammad (SAW), the Seal of the Prophets. 120
Prophet Muhammad (SAW) as the seal of Prophets brings to an end, in his own person,
the entire line and chain of prophets stretching back to Adam. Muhammad (SAW) was not
just a reformer of society as present day modernists consider, but as the Qur’ān asserts
that Prophet (SAW) was a man 121, not divine, that he was given the most exalted and
noble character, 122 and that he was chosen as a model for Muslims to imitate. 123 For
Muslims, the Prophet (SAW) is a mortal man,124 but also Allah’s most perfect creature on
earth or in the terminology of the universal man (al-insan al Kamil).125 It is the basic
aspect of Islamic religious life to have an unconditional love for the Prophet (SAW). It
might be said that this love is the key love for the love of God, for in order to love God,
God must first love us, and God does not love a person who does not love His
messenger.126 A Muslim is also required to love other prophets and messengers. A devout
111
al Baqarah, 2:208; al An’ām, 6 :12 ; al An’ām, 6 :54; al-Hijr, 15:49;Ash-Shu‘arā’, 26:9.
Tā hā, 20:110; Luqmān, 31: 26-31
113
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, The Heart of Islam: Enduring Values for Humanity (Lahore: Suhail Academy, 2004),
3, 5.
114
al-Mā’idah, 5:18.
115
al-‘Imrān: 79-80; Abd al Jabbar Danner, The Islamic Tradition: An Introduction (Lahore: Institute of Islamic
Culture, 1991), 6.
116
Tā hā, 20: 4; an- Naml, 27 :6; Az Zumar, 39:1;41:2; al-Jāthiya, 45:2.
117
al-Kahf, 18:110 ; Az Zumar, 39: 2 ; Ibrāhīm, 14:1.
118
Al-Wāqi ‘ah, 56:80 ; Al-Hāqqah, 69: 43
119
An- Nisā’, 4:174; al-‘Imrān, 3:138 ; Qāf, 50: 37; Seyyed Hossein Nasr, The Heart of Islam: Enduring Values
for Humanity, 22.
120
al-Mā’idah, 5:3; al-ahzāb, 33:40.
121
al-ahzāb, 33:40.
122
at-Tawbah, 9:128; al Qalam, 68 :4
123
al-ahzāb, 33:21.
124
al-‘Imrān, 3:144.
125
The Heart of Islam: Enduring Values for Humanity, 18, 28.
126
al-‘Imran, 3: 132; at-Tawbah, 9: 24; al-ahzāb, 33: 6; al-Fath, 48 :10
112
61
Volume 3, Issue 1
Journal of Islamic Thought and Civilization
Spring 2013
Muslim will not disgrace the prophets who came before Prophet Muhammad (SAW)
particularly mentioned in the Qur’ān.127
The Sunnah and the Traditions of the Holy Prophet (SAW) are fundamental to the Islamic
Tradition. Sunnah and Hadith have maintained their position in Muslim society as
something which is passed on to us from transmission of chain of narrators. 128 The
system of transmission of the Hadith has been based upon the use of the isnad (chain of
transmitters), or “support,” that accompanies the text of every individual Hadith.129 The
isnad takes the form of a list or “chain” (silsilah) of individual transmitters who cover the
generations from the most recent reporter back to the Prophet (SAW) or the
Companions.130 The isnads exist in order to confirm the authenticity of a given report by
confirming that it has come down via a silsilah composed of trustworthy persons preferably a “high” chain made up of a minimum number of links.131
William Graham describes the defining elements of the isnad paradigm as: “(1)
derivation of authority primarily or even, in extreme cases, solely from (2) linkage to a
sacred, but historical, time of origins of the tradition through (3) a chain of personal
transmission, the individual human links of which represent all intervening generations
between that of the original source (ideally the Prophet (SAW) or one of his Companions)
and that of the latest reporter. This paradigm is, in turn, the mechanism or explicit vehicle
for the realization of ittisaliyah (connectivity), the personal connectedness which
substantiates a report as valid tradition.”132
This isnad paradigm is the most important model of Muslim traditionalism, which has
most clearly and consistently expressed its need for connectedness.133 “Correspondingly,
“Qur’ān and Sunnah” early on became the dual catchphrase of Islamic traditionalism as
passed on and elaborated by the 'ulama', or religious scholars.134 Whether identified as
“orthodox,” “orthoprax,” or “scripturalist,” the tradition of the 'ulama' has always been
characterized by reliance on "these two sources" of scripture and Sunnah. “Islamic
traditionalism is also to speak about the widespread Muslim emphasis upon the primary,
dual authority of the revelations of the Qur’ān and the tradition or practice (Sunnah)
ascribed to the Prophet (SAW) and the first few generations of Muslims (the "pious
forebears," as-salaf).”135
Consequently, Islamic Tradition is a big circle which engulfs many traditions grown over
some fourteen centuries inhabited in nearly every corner of the globe. All prevalent
traditions based on these two fundamentals of the Qur’ān and Hadith among Muslims
either living in the Muslim world or in any other country as minority is considered
Islamic, whether intellectual or mystic or artistic (Islamic architecture manifested in
mosques buildings, calligraphy, etc). Qur’ān and Hadith, watchwords of Islamic
127
al-baqarah, 2:133; An- Nisā’, 4:150, 152.
M. Mustafa Azmi, Studies in Hadith Methodology and Literature (Lahore: Suhail Academy, 2002), 35-65.
Muhammad Mustafa A’zami, “Isnad and its Significance,” in Hadith and Sunna: Ideals and Realities, ed.,
P.K. Koya (Kuala Lumpur: Islamic Book Trust, 1996), 58.
130
A. Rahman I. Doi, Introduction to Hadith (Nigeria: Arewa Books, 1981), 14; Muhammad Zubair Sidiqui,
Hadith Literature: Its Origin, Development & Special Features (Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society, 1993),
76.
131
Muhammad Zubair Siddiqui, “The Science and the Critique of Islam,” in Hadith and Sunna: Ideals and
Realities, 72-73.
132
“Traditionalism in Islam,”502.
133
Ibid., 521-522.
134
Ibid., 504.
135
Ibid., 500.
128
129
62
Volume 3, Issue 1
Journal of Islamic Thought and Civilization
Spring 2013
Tradition provide basis for orthodoxy in Islam as earlier it was studied that the concept of
orthodoxy is of capital importance in every religious tradition. The very word orthodoxy
means “correctness of belief or doctrine” 136 and Islam is also called the “religion of the
straight path”137. Thus, in Islamic Tradition, orthodoxy can be understood as the state of
being on the “straight path.” Orthodoxy provides the basis of Islamic traditionalism
which in turn is grounded in Qur’ān and Sunnah, Sharia law as well as its esoteric
elements as Sufism.
As stated earlier, Sunnah was the key element in interpreting the Qur’ān for the
development of Islamic Law. Jurists also relied on Ijmaa or consensus of the Muslim
community; the third source of Islamic Law and the principle of authority. 138 Jurists of
the second and third centuries after the Hijra illustrated the revealed law from these three
sources and “roots of Islamic jurisprudence.” 139 They also mobilized the Ijmaa or
consensus by equating it with unanimity among those pious ancestors who constituted the
first generation of Muslims. 140 “On the basis of these sources, Muslim jurists built a
system of law which, from the point of view of logical perfection, has been described as
one of the most brilliant systems of human reasoning.”141
The different ways of interpreting the Qur’ān and applying different ways of qiyas and
ra’y on Sunnah of various jurists laid down the foundation of madhabs.142 Some of these
madhabs or schools died out during the course of time,143 but four have been accepted by
Ijma as orthodox and practiced during the past millennium. They constitute the main
body of traditional Sunnism144 and traditional Muslims all around the world adhere to
either of these. The teachings of these four schools were recognized as orthodox and
traditional by the Muslim community. These schools were named after their founders, the
Imams Malik (Maliki),145 Abu Hanifa (Hanafi),146 Ahmed Ibn Hanbal (Hanbali)147 and
Shaf‘i (Shaf‘i).148 Though they differed in various issues but fundamentals and the basics
remained the same throughout the Islamic World. In Islamic Tradition, Sharia is
defended as the divine law which has been crystallized in these classical and orthodox
Schools of Law. Moreover it also accepts the possibility of giving fresh views on the
136
The Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed., s.v. “Orthodoxy.”
Al-Ana’m 6:161.
138
Fazlur Rahman, Islam (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1966), 72-75; Saba Habachy, “Islam: Factors of
Stability and Change,” Columbia Law Review. 54, no. 5, Community Security vs. Man's Right to Knowledge
(1954):712.
139
Islam, 68-70.
140
Ahmad Hassan, The Doctrine of Ijma’ in Islam: A Study of the Juridical Principle of Consensus (Islamabad:
Islamic Research Institute, 1978), 3-5.
141
Saba Habachy, “Islam: Factors of Stability and Change,” 713.
142
Islam, 81.
143
Islam, 83; Muhammad Hameedullah Khan, The Schools of Islamic Jurisprudence: A Comparative Study
(New Delhi: Kitab Bhavan, 2001), 131-134; Zahiris, the Literalist, School of Tabari, Auzai, etc.
144
Islam, 8; Ahmad Hassan, The Early Development of Islamic Jurisprudence (Islamabad: Islamic Research
Institute, International Islamic University, 1994), 21-28.
145
Malikism, founded by Imam Malik ibn Anas (d.179/795), is based mostly on the practice of Medina and is
very conservative in its approach to Law.
146
Hanafism was founded by a Persian, Imam Abu Hanifah (d.150/767), who was a student of Imam Jafar
Sadiq, the sixth Imam of Shi’ite Law, which is called Ja’fari law.
147
The Hanbali School, founded by Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 241/855) from Baghdad, based itself solely on
the Qur’ān and Hadith and gave a very strict interpretation of the Shariah.
148
The Shafi’i School was founded by a student of Imam Abu Hanifah, Imam Muhammad Idris al Shafi’i (d.
204/819). He was the one who completed and perfected the methods of jurisprudence in Islamic Law.
137
63
Volume 3, Issue 1
Journal of Islamic Thought and Civilization
Spring 2013
basis of legal principles ijtihad,149 as well as making use of others according to such
traditional legal principles as qiyas 150 and istihsan 151 and istislah 152 , etc. In Islamic
Tradition, all morality is derived from Qur’ān and Sunnah and in a more concrete manner
from Shariah.153
Shariah or Orthodox Islamic Law Schools constitute the exoteric aspect of Islamic
Tradition. Also, there are orthodox esoteric elements of Islamic Tradition. Although in
most Western studies, orthodoxy is limited to exoteric elements but there is also an
exoteric orthodoxy and orthopraxy and there is esoteric orthodoxy and orthopraxy.
Traditional and orthodox Sufism is not only a part of Islamic orthodoxy 154 but it also
constitutes the inner dimension of the Islamic Tradition. The sense of connectedness or
ittisaliya which is the distinctive characteristic of Islamic Traditionalism also plays a key
role in mysticism as in Hadith, in law and history.
“Sufism is the name of Islamic mysticism which is an attempt to reach an individual
salvation through attaining true tawhid.”155 The Sufi tradition or tariqah has played such
a major role in shaping Muslim values, worship, theology, conversion, and social order
that it has functioned almost as an equal partner with the “ulama tradition” of
“normative” religious and legal learning in defining actual Muslim piety and practice.156
Sufism traces its origins to the Holy Prophet (SAW) and his companions. Some of the
Prophetic traditions are taken as mystical traditions as the one known as “Hadith-eJibraeil.”157 The concept of ‘Ihsān’ mentioned in this Hadith has become the foundation
149
Ijtihad is defined as, “expending of maximum effort in the performance of an act. Technically, it is the effort
made by the mujtahid in seeking knowledge of the ahkam (rules) of the sharia through interpretation.” (Imran
Hassan Khan Nyazee, Islamic Jurisprudence [Islamabad: International Institute of Islamic Thought, 2007],
263)
150
Islam, 71; The term qiyas, according to the Muslim jurists, means analogical reasoning, i.e., concluding from
a given principle embodied in a precedent that a new case falls under this principle or is similar to this
precedent on the strength of a common essential feature called the ‘reason’(illa).
151
Istihsan was the form of ray in the School of Abu Hanifa. It was a unique method of exercising personal
opinion by setting aside the apparent and strict analogy in the interest of public benefit, equity or justice. (The
Early Development of Islamic Jurisprudence, 145-151)
152
Istislah means a deduction of law based on consideration of public good or public welfare. Imam Malik
sanctioned this doctrine. (The Schools of Islamic Jurisprudence: A Comparative Study, 56)
153
Traditional Islam in the Modern World, 15.
154
The Heart of Islam: Enduring Values for Humanity, 85-86.
155
Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Islam (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press,
1975), 23.
156
Fazlur Rahman, Islam, 130.
157
Umar ibn Khattab (RA) said: “As we were sitting one day before the Messenger of Allah (SAW), a man
suddenly appeared. He wore pure white clothes and his hair was dark black—yet there were no signs of travel
on him, and none of us knew him. He came and sat down in front of the Prophet (SAW), placing his knees
against his, and his hands on his thighs. He said, “O Muhammad! Tell me about Islam.”The Messenger of
Allah (SAW), replied, “Islam is to bear witness that there is no god but God and that Muhammad is the
Messenger of God; and to perform the prayer; pay zakat; fast Ramadan; and to perform Hajj to the House if
you are able.”The man said, “You have spoken the truth,” and we were surprised that he asked and then
confirmed the answer. Then, he asked, “Tell me about belief (iman).”The Prophet (SAW) replied, “It is to
believe in Allah; His Angels; His Books; His Messengers; the Last Day; and in destiny—its good and
bad.”The man said, “You have spoken the truth. Now, tell me about spiritual excellence (ihsan).”The Prophet
(SAW), replied, “It is to serve Allah as though you behold Him; and if you don’t behold him, (know that) He
surely sees you.” “Now, tell me of the Last Hour,” asked the man. The Prophet (SAW) replied, “The one
asked knows no more of it than the one asking.” “Then tell me about its signs,” said the man. The Prophet
(peace and blessings be upon him) replied, “That slave women give birth to their mistresses; and that you see
barefoot, unclothed, beginning shepherds competing in the construction of tall buildings.” Then the visitor
left, and I waited a long time. Then the Prophet (SAW) asked me, “Do you know, Umar, who the questioner
was?” I replied, “Allah and His Messenger know best.”He (SAW) said, “It was Jibril. He came to you to teach
64
Volume 3, Issue 1
Journal of Islamic Thought and Civilization
Spring 2013
for Sufism. Companions of the Holy Prophet (SAW) Salman al Farsi (RA) and Owais-eQarani (RA) are also symbolized as mystics. 158 Mystic tendencies did develop after the
martyrdom of Ali b abi Talib (RA) in the period of the Ummayads as the government was
more involved in worldly desires and luxuries. The resistance of the pious circles to the
government during this period significantly shaped Sufism.159
Sufism in the beginning remained limited to individual circles but with the development
of formal disciplines of Islamic law and theology, it has grown into institution or paths
(tariqas) with a mass appeal.160 From about the sixth and seventh centuries (AH), there
developed orders from these paths.161 In each of the orders continued particular inner or
esoteric teachings traced back to a master teacher, from whom the tariqah often took its
name and this isnad was traced back to Companions of the Holy Prophet, most often Ali
ibn Abi Talib (RA).162 Sufis are of the view that prophecy (nubuwwah) was replaced after
the death of the last Prophet (SAW) with sainthood or the state of nearness to God
(wilayah), which has its own succession. Thus it can be noted that “at the center of
systematized Sufi thought the key concept of an initiatory isnad of spiritual guides or
masters (murshids, shaykhs, pīrs) that is most commonly referred to as a “chain,” or
silsilah.163 The spiritual power (barakah) of charismatic religious figures is thus achieved
in a line of spiritual descent that links each new generation and lay followers of an order
to the spiritual authority of the Prophet (SAW) and ultimately to God-through the
Companions and the best of their successors.”164 The notion of the silsilah is so much
pivotal in Sufism that it is used generally in many Sufi traditions throughout the Islamic
world to designate an entire order and/or its tradition of teaching and initiation.165 The
induction of the Sufi into a particular “path” receives its and authority through the silsilah
into which he or she gains acceptance and it is also noteworthy that almost all tariqas
have traced their silsilas back to Prophet Muhammad (SAW) through his son-in-law and
cousin, 'Ali ibn Abi Talib (RA), most often through the famous, al-Hasan al-Basri (d.
110/728) and from Sufi, al- Junayd al-Baghdadi (d. 298/9I0).166
It can also be observed that there has been a conflict between ulama the guardians of
Sharia and Sufis due to inclusion of heterodox elements in Sufism167 which were being
corrected and removed by emergence of orthodox Sufism. This orthodox Sufism
culminated in the works of Imam Ghazali “who not only reconstituted orthodox Islam,
making Sufism an integral part of it, but also a great reformer of Sufism, purifying it of
un-Islamic elements and putting it to the service of orthodox Islam.”168 His influence
throughout the Islamic World is incalculable as Sufis of Africa, Central Asia and India
derive their doctrines from his teachings.169
you your religion.” [Imam Mulism ibn Hajjaj bin Muslim alQushairi Nesaburi, Jami‘ as Sahih, Kitab ul Imān,
babul Bayan al Imān wal Islām wal Ihsān wa Wajub al Imān bi Ithbāt Qadar allah hi Ta’ala- wa Bayan adDalīl al al Tabarri mimman la Yu‘minu Bilqadar wa ighlath al qawl fi Haqqihey, Hadith, 1.]
158
Mystical Dimensions of Islam, 28.
159
Ibid.,29-30.
160
Islam, 132.
161
Fazlur Rahman, Islam, 132.
162
“Traditionalism in Islam,” 515.
163
Mystical Dimensions of Islam, 231, 239-240; Islam,156.
164
“Traditionalism in Islam,” 515.
165
Mystical Dimensions of Islam, 26-28.
166
Junaid Baghdadi and Hassan Basri
167
Islam, 129-130, 134.
168
Fazlur Rahman, Islam, 140.
169
Islam, 140.
65
Volume 3, Issue 1
Journal of Islamic Thought and Civilization
Spring 2013
Another side of Islamic Tradition that developed during the period of Ummahyds is
philosophical. The emergence of Shi‘a, Khawārij and other similar movements promoted
philosophical debates like divine will, nature of divine attributes and reason, etc. The
development of Muslim philosophy and parallel to this the development of theology
constituted the intellectual side of Islamic Tradition. Islam created the richest
philosophical tradition, one which possesses great significance for Islam itself and has
survived as a continuous tradition to this day.170 In the Abbasid period, translation of the
Greek philosophical texts into Arabic contributed to the development of Muslim
philosophy. 171 Islam created a powerful and original philosophy within the intellectual
universe of monotheism and the Qur’ānic revelation, while incorporating those elements
of Greek philosophy which conformed to the Islamic perspective. “Being traditional
philosophy based upon supra individualistic opinion, Islamic philosophy developed
schools and perspectives which were followed over centuries, rather than being changed
and overthrown and opposed by one philosopher after another. Some of the philosophers
as Averroes and Avicenna were criticized by theologians who developed another
paradigm of Islamic Tradition.” 172 Still, Islamic Philosophical Tradition despite its
diversity, variety and richness, shares some common features. It is dominated by the
word of Allah, Qur’ān and Prophetic (SAW) traditions (Hadiths), assures harmony
between reason and revelation, and provides within the context of a religious tradition
dominated by monotheism, metaphysics centered on the Supreme doctrine of One.173
Muslim philosophy is not only rich in religious and ethical philosophy, but also in the
philosophies of nature and mathematics as well as of art. In fact, Islamic sciences were
cultivated in the Islamic philosophy and almost always by men who were not only
scientists but also philosophers.174
In the development of different intellectual and mystical streamlines of the Islamic
Tradition, the role of madrasa education cannot be ruled out which also constitutes a
significant portion of the Islamic tradition. The quest for knowledge and its true
celebration were dominated from beginning to end by its sacred quality and nature. In
Islam, knowledge was never divorced from the sacred presence. Islamic education is
related to holiness and wholeness and is concerned with the whole being of the men and
women whom it sought to educate.
In the early period of Islam, khuttab were setup as the institutes for imparting elementary
education to the young for learning Qur’ān and its message. 175 The rise of Islamic
jurisprudence gave way to higher learning. Madrasa Nizamia under patronage of Veizer
Nizam ul Mulk around 1064 AD was the next step in the evolution of higher learning and
education in Muslim World.176 This madrasa can be nominated as college. The opening
of this school was also a transition from mosque to schools.177 Established in the time of
170
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, “The Role and the Meaning of Philosophy in Islam,” Studia Islamica, vol. XXXVII,
1973, 57-80.
C. A. Qadir, Philosophy and Science in the Islamic World (New York: Croom Helm, 1988), 32-34.
172
Traditional Islam in the Modern World, 133.
173
Ibid.
174
Ibid.
175
Charles Michael Stanton, Higher Learning in Islam: The Classical Period A.D. 700-1300 (Mary Land:
Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 1990), 14-15.
176
George Makdisi, “Muslim Institutions of Learning in Eleventh-Century Baghdad,” Bulletin of the School of
Oriental and African Studies 24, no. 1 (1961): 1-56, http://www.jstor.org/.: Higher Learning in Islam: The
Classical Period A.D. 700-1300, 37.
177
Mehdi Nakosteen, History of Islamic Origins of Western Education (Colorado: University of Colorado Press,
1964), 39.
171
66
Volume 3, Issue 1
Journal of Islamic Thought and Civilization
Spring 2013
the Holy Prophet Muhammad (SAW), the madrasa has maintained its integrity as the
source of religious learning as well as other disciplines of knowledge. Madrasa has
provided a special atmosphere; it combined the academic and social lives of students and
teachers residing in it and formed a community of scholars.178 These madrassas were
established on the principle of transmission of knowledge from teacher to disciple and
then a formal ijaza (a letter certifying the proficiency of student in that particular subject)
was granted to transmit this knowledge to others.179 The radiance of such institutions and
their significance was so great that soon they were being noticed throughout the whole of
the Islamic world and in fact played a fundamental role in the foundation of the European
centers of higher education, a role that is only now fully recognized. 180 Madrassas
founded by Nizam ul Mulk were very famous all over the world and in the words of
Shalabi, “no single village lacks one of these schools.” 181 The main activity of the
madrassas was instruction in the religious sciences, especially Divine Law (al Shariah),
its principles (al-usul), jurisprudence (al-Fiqh), and theology, etc. 182 These disciplines
together were referred to as the transmitted (naqli) sciences and they dominated the
educational activity of most madrassas.183 Another important feature of the madrasa was
its beautiful architecture which served the needs of boarding for students and faculty.184
To this day, in most Islamic cities, after the mosques, the madrasas, which in fact were
always related geographically to mosques, are the most notable architectural masterpieces
to be found.
Tradition of Islamic architecture manifested through mosques and domes, tradition of
Islamic calligraphy and painting also constitute the big circle of Islamic Tradition.185
These various forms of art insist upon its relation to the inner dimension of the Islamic
revelation and its crystallization of the spiritual treasures of the religion in visible or
audible forms.186 Islamic architecture has made full use of light and shade and heat and
coolness, of wind and its aerodynamics. 187 The ecological harmony in Islamic
architecture is the result of Islamic spirituality guided by Qur’ān and Sunnah.188 In the
Qur’ān, the terminologies related to modern architecture is mentioned at many places.189
Islamic architecture though is unique and distinct from other forms of architecture as it
has assimilated elements of local culture and made them own the characteristic of Islamic
tradition. This characteristic is true for all forms of Islamic Tradition. Historical analysis
shows that Islam is the religion of adaptability, wherever it was embraced in any part of
the world, it assimilated in it the local norms and traditions while remaining within the
limits of orthodoxy.
178
Higher Learning in Islam: The Classical Period A.D. 700-1300, 47.
Ibid., 49.
180
Nakosteen sums up the outcomes of Muslim education as, “The Muslims passed on the experimental method
of science, however imperfect, to the West… They stimulated European thought, reacquired it with the Greek
and other classical Greek cultures and thus helped to bring about Renaissance. They contributed knowledge
of hospitals, sanitation, and food to Europe” (History of Islamic Origins of Western Education, 62).
181
Ahmad Shalaby, History of Muslim Education (Karachi: Indus Publication, 1952), 58.
182
Traditional Islam in the Modern World, 126.
183
Ibid.
184
Traditional Islam in the Modern World, 125.
185
The Islamic Tradition: An Introduction, 178-179.
186
Ibid., 179.
187
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islamic Art and Spirituality (Cambridge: Golgonooza Press, 1987), 56.
188
Islamic Art and Spirituality,57.
189
Prof. Gelani Ikram Ali Shah, Architecture and Town Planning in the Holy Qur’ān (Lahore: Ferozsons Ltd,
1991)
179
67
Volume 3, Issue 1
Journal of Islamic Thought and Civilization
Spring 2013
This particular feature of adaptability and flexibility of Islamic tradition makes it distinct
from the world traditions. The fundamental reason behind this uniqueness is the
prohibition of the spirit of exaggeration in all aspects of life mentioned in the Qur’ān190
and Sunnah of the Prophet (SAW). 191 Islamic tradition declares the right path for the
orthodox community where its adherents keep the forces of conservatism and the forces
of progressiveness in equilibrium.192 Both these factors are necessary for the preservation
and continuity of Islamic tradition. Without the former, Islam would lose its character
and yield to dangerous heresies; without the latter, it would lose touch with the changing
conditions of life. 193 A necessary balance has always been maintained between
traditionalism and innovation in Islamic tradition. Over the centuries, with the advent of
new inventions, new changes were welcomed and legitimized after close scrutiny and
critical analysis of ulama, religious scholars and jurists. The process of exercising legal
opinion in case of not finding any legal evidence from the past also continued throughout
the history of Muslims supported with the strong source of consensus of the Muslim
community which laid down the basis of collective Ijtihad. 194 There were of course,
continuous renewals from within that must not, however be confused with reform in its
modern sense. Many great scholars of law continued to appear and Sufism was also
rejuvenated in several areas.195 In the words of Nasr,
“New ways of conceptualizing the Sharia, efforts to reach new audiences, new conceptions of
religion and of the ‘ulama’s position in society and polity, and new roles of religious and political
activism are, some of the many facets of change that continue to sweep through the world of ulama.
Such changes are not the product of some grand blueprint for bringing them about; nor are they
necessarily recognized as “changes. Many, indeed are the paradoxical product of the ‘ulama’s very
effort to conserve their tradition in a changing world. Whether or not, they acknowledge this, such
an effort necessarily entails continuous redefinition of themselves, their stances and their
196
intellectual sources.”
The entire Islamic history is full of these examples since the time of the Holy Prophet
(SAW) when changes were made in Islamic law according to the contemporary conditions
without entailing a break with tradition. 197 The process of exercising ijtihad for the
190
al-Mā’idah 5:77 ;An-Nisā’4:171.
The Apostle of Allah (SAW) said: “Do not impose austerities on yourselves so that austerities will be
imposed on you, for people have imposed austerities on themselves and Allah imposed austerities on them.
Their survivors are to be found in cells and monasteries…” [Sulaiman Dawood bin Asha’as,Sunan Abi
Dawood, Kitab ul Adab, Bab, fil Hasad, 4886.]
192
al-Baqarah, 2 : 143.
193
The Heart of Islam: Enduring Values for Humanity, 84-87.
194
Examples of collective ijtihads can be observed during the reigns of Abu Bakr and Umar RA. They used to
call upon the companions and used to take their opinions in any new matter, faced by Muslim Ummah. They
issued judgments after the consensus of these companions. There are many examples of this kind of
judgments which laid down the basis for collective Ijtihad. ; Examples of these judgments can be found in
Abu Yusuf, Ya‘qub ibn Ibrahim al-Ansari, Kitab al-Kharaj (Cairo: al-Matba‘at al-Salafiyah, 1325), 26-27; alQasim ibn ‘Abd al-Salam Abu ‘Ubayd, Kitab al-Amwal, ed. Khalil Harras (Cairo: Maktabah Kulliyah alAzhariyah, 1975/1395), 61-62; Abu Muhammad ‘Abdullah ibn ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn Bahram al-Darimi,
Sunan al-Darimi (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah, n.d.), 1:58, Abu Muhammad ‘Abdullah ibn Ahmad ibn
Muhammad Ibn Qudamah, Al-Mughni (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyah, n.d.), 2:720-21; al-‘Ayni, ‘Umdat
(n.p.: n.d.), 23:266; Yunus ibn ‘Abdulah Ibn ‘Abd al-Barr, ed. Abu al-Ashbal al-Zuhayri, Jami‘ Bayan al-‘Ilm
wa Fadlihi, 1st ed. (Dar Ibn al-Jawzi: 1994/1414), 2:56.
195
The Heart of Islam: Enduring Values for Humanity, 101-106.
196
Ibid., 124.
197
Aznan Hasan, “An Introduction to Collective Ijtihad (Ijtihad Jama ‘i): Concept and Applications,” in The
American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences (20:2): 29; Taha Jabir al- ‘Alwani, Ijtihad (Herndon, VA:
International Institute of Islamic Thought, 1993), 6-9.
191
68
Volume 3, Issue 1
Journal of Islamic Thought and Civilization
Spring 2013
legitimization of new changes emerging in the world of Islam gained momentum during
the nineteenth century. Throughout the Muslim world, reforms were made within the
divine limits to meet the local norms and traditions. For instance, the Ottoman reforms of
Tanzimat including the commercial code of 1850 were similar to European commercial
and criminal code. The Majalla of 1870 based on the rulings of Hanafi School of law
provided greater degree of regularity required in complex economic transactions,
including trade with non-Muslim powers. This was the first and most successful attempt
to codify Islamic Law.198 This Majalla was also the beginning of the era of collective
Ijtihad.199 There are many other examples of the local variety of ijtihad conducted in
different parts of the Muslim world. Now it has become a matter of routine practice that
reforms are made in Islamic legal practices on the basis of ijtihad. In Saudi Arabia,
reforms occur on routine basis on the invocation of masala mursala (Public Welfare).200
For further legislation based on the ijtihad of ulama, a Jurisprudence Academy of the
Organization of Islamic Conference is working to cater for the needs of modern period.201
There are many other many academies, organizations and councils working at local level
to conduct the process of ijtihad.202 Other than varieties of individual ijtihad, numerous
international institutions are performing this noble task of exercising ijtihad at collective
level. The collective ijtihad ensures harmony and unity among Muslims belonging to
different ethnic groups, different tribes living in different parts of the world.203 These
198
Amin Ahsan Islahi, Islamic Law, Concept and Codification (Lahore: Islamic Publishers, n.d), 89-105.
First Encyclopedia of Islam, 1913–1936, 1st ed., s.v. “Medjelle.”
200
Muslim Politics, 26; The author of the Muslim Politics has given the example of Social Insurance Law of
1970 which was a departure “from the classical laws of inheritance as in the case of deceased worker:
Inheritors of his governmentally guaranteed insurance would now be principally his wife and children and not
simply ---- as might be expected – male agnatic relatives.”
201
King Fahd Abdul Aziz’s inaugural address on the eve of the establishment of the Academy of Ijtihad is
quoted here when he said, “Such Ijtihad must be validated by the ulema after due research in and
consideration of old and new jurisprudence. In this regard, the call for the establishment of this academy
reflects an imperative need at this stage of development of the Muslim Ummah. Indeed it provides the truly
Islamic response to questions raised by the challenges of modern life. This requires the pooling of the efforts
by jurists, scholars, sages, thinkers throughout the Muslim world with a view to seeking answers to the
questions posed by the challenges of our time, based on the reality of our tolerant Shariah.” [Dale F.
Eickelman, James P. Piscotri, Muslim Politics (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2000), 26-27]
202
Aznan Hasan has listed some prominent Muslim countries and the institutions for performing Ijtihad on
collective level.; Egypt: The Academy for Islamic Researches (Majma‘ al-Buhuth al-Fiqhiyah), and The High
Council for Islamic Affairs (al-Majlis al-A‘la li al-Shu’un al-Islamiyah), Saudi Arabia:The Organization of
Great Jurists of Saudi Arabia(Hay’at Kibar al-‘Ulama’ fi al-Mamlakat al-Arabiyat al- Sa‘udiyah); The
Permanent Committee for Scientific Researches and Ifta’ (al-Lajnat al-Da’imah li al-Buhuth al-‘Ilmiyah wa
al-Ifta’); The General Commission for the Administration of Scientific Researches, Ifta’ and Missionary
Works and Preaching (al-Ri’asat al-‘Ammah li Idarat al-Buhuth wa al-Ifta’ wa al- Da‘wah wa al-Irshad); The
International Fiqh Academy (Majma‘al-Fiqh al-Islami al-Dawli); and The Fiqh Academy (Majma‘ al- Fiqh
al-Islami).Kuwait: The General Administration for Ifta’ (Kuwait); The Islamic Organization for Medical
Researches (al-Munazzamat al- Islamiyat li al-‘Ulum al-Tibbiyah); The Islamic Council for Fatwa and
Shari‘ah Supervisory in the Kuwaiti House of Finance (Hay’at al-Fatwa wa al-Riqabat al-Shar‘iyah fi Bayt
al-Tamwil al-Kuwayti); and The International Shari‘ah Council for Affairs Related to Zakat under the House
of Zakat in Kuwait (al-Hay’at al- Shar‘iyat al-‘Alamiyat li al-Zakat al-Tabi‘at li Bayt al-Zakat fi Dawlat alKuwayt). Sudan: The Board for Shari‘at’s Ifta’ in Sudan (Majlis al-Ifta’ al- Shar‘i fi al-Sudan) and The
Supreme Council of the Shari‘ah Supervisory Board for Banking and Financial Institutions in Sudan (alHay’at al-‘Ulya al-Shar‘iyah li al-Jihaz al-Masrafi wa al- Mu’assasat al-Maliyah fi Sudan). Pakistan: The
Council for Islamic Teaching in Pakistan (Majlis al-Fikr al-Islami bi Bakistan). These Institutions hire
scholars only from their respective country. However there are other institutions which hire scholars from all
over the world as International Fiqh Academy, The Islamic Organization for Medical Researches and the
International Shari‘ah Council for Affairs Related to Zakat under the House of Zakat in Kuwait. (Aznan
Hassan, “An Introduction to Collective Ijtihad (Ijtihad Jama ‘i): Concept and Applications,” 39-41)
203
These institutions do not only stick to the opinion of any specific school of thought.
199
69
Volume 3, Issue 1
Journal of Islamic Thought and Civilization
Spring 2013
international organizations work on the principle of minimizing the juristic and
theological differences among the Muslim Ummah. Their main aim is to cater for the
needs of the traditional Muslims living in the modern and postmodern world.204
There is of course, a visible unity in Islamic civilization. Despite political fragmentation,
theological differences, and ethnic distinctions, Islamic tradition has maintained its unity
of the Islamic community and a constant desire for political unity within the dar al-Islam
in the hearts of all Muslims.205 The central factor in the creation of unity among Muslims
is the Qur’ān. Then there are the Sunnah and Hadith of the Prophet (SAW), which are
very powerful unifying factors. Although there are local varieties in the understanding of
the twin sources of the Islamic religion, that is, the Qur’ān and the Sunnah, there are three
central doctrines upon which all schools of Islam agree, namely tawhid, or Divine
oneness, nubuwwah, or prophecy, and ma’ad, or eschatology. 206 Hossein Nasr, while
discussing the unity and diversity of Islamic Tradition states,
“The vast majority of Muslims still breathe in a universe in which the Name of God is associated
above all with Compassion and Mercy, and they turn to him in patience even in the midst of the
worst tribulations. If one looks at the extensive panorama of the Islamic spectrum, it becomes
evident for the vast majority of Muslims, the traditional norms based on peace and openness to
others, norms that have governed their lives over the centuries and are opposed both secularist
modernism and “fundamentalism” and central concern. And after the dust settles in this tumultuous
period of both Islamic and global history, it will be the voice of traditional Islam that will have the
207
final say in the Islamic world.”
The significant role of tradition in Islamic societies is strengthened by the presence of
different Schools of Tradition. These Schools adhere to different forms of Islamic
Tradition in one way or the other.
Islamic Traditionalist Schools
The broader term used for the cluster of traditional Muslims is Sunni Muslims 208 all
around the world. The Sunni Muslims follow and adhere to either of the orthodox legal
schools209 and constitute different schools of traditional Islam. They follow the doctrines
of orthodox legal schools and are divided on the basis of doctrines.210 There is a group of
traditionalists who share the doctrine, emphasizing the study of law and the traditions
attributed to Prophet Muhammad (SAW) as well as a self consciously Muslim belief and
practice.211 The other traditionalists affirm not just the authority of the Prophet (SAW) but
also of religious saints and holy people, whom they revere as source of religious guidance
204
Aznan Hasan writes on the importance of collective Ijtihad, “Its role is essential to Islam’s continuity and
survival in the modern world. It is a viable way to accommodate all Muslims, organizations, or even
authorities who are concerned with a more utilitarian solution that suits the exigencies of modern life and
business.” (“An Introduction to Collective Ijtihad (Ijtihad Jama ‘i): Concept and Applications,” 37)
205
The Heart of Islam: Enduring Values for Humanity, 108.
206
The Heart of Islam: Enduring Values for Humanity, 108.
207
The Heart of Islam: Enduring Values for Humanity, 108-112.
208
The Islamic term that was generally applied to this cluster of traditional Muslim groups within Islamicate
society during the first few centuries was ahl al- Sunna wal-jama’a “the people of the Sunna and the
Community,” from which the term “Sunni” is derived. This term is also used to distinguish from the Shi’i
Muslims all over the world.
209
Hanafi, Shafii, Hanbali, Maliki.
210
Here the names of these schools would not be mentioned because it would be very difficult to cover the
whole Muslim world. However these traditional Muslims follow orthodoxy in different ways.
211
In the sub continent it is called the Deoband School.
70
Volume 3, Issue 1
Journal of Islamic Thought and Civilization
Spring 2013
and vehicles of mediation between God and human beings.212 Another traditional school,
for its part, denies the legitimacy not just of all practices lacking a basis in scriptural
texts, but even of the classical schools of law, stringently insisting on the Qur’ān and
Hadith as the exclusive and directly accessible sources of guidance.213
The term traditionalist is also referred to reformist religious movement primarily
associated to hanbaliya, the followers of Ahmad bin Hanbal.214 They were nominated
traditionalists in opposition to Mu‘tazila who were called rationalists.215
There are a considerable number of traditional ulama who are also working as modernists
and advocate the traditional themes and doctrines in a modernist way. Hence, they also
constitute the larger circle of Islamic tradition. Presently Shi‘a follows their legal school
of Imam Jafar Sadiq and orthodoxy are also nominated as traditionalists. After the Iran
revolution in 1974, the Iranian Government follows Shi‘a orthodox doctrines. They are
nominated as traditional.
There is another significant school which is recognized with the name of ‘traditionalist.’
It arose mainly in the West in reaction to the destruction caused by Western modernism
and modernity. From the 1960s onward, it began to manifest itself in the public
intellectual arena and challenged both the modernists and the secularists. Rene Guenon
was the pioneer in this School.216 He studied deeply the traditions and histories of the
West and East and was impressed by the occult of the orient. He challenged the premises
of Western modernity and synthesized the crisis of modern man.217 Along with him many
other followers’ advocated certain common doctrines called tradition. “They considered
tradition as the continuity of revelation: an uninterrupted transmission, through
innumerable generation, of the spiritual and cosmological principles, sciences and law
resulting from a revealed religion: nothing is neglected, from the establishment of social
orders and codes of conduct to the canons regulating the arts and architecture,
ornamentation and dress; it includes mathematical, physical, medical and psychological
sciences, encompassing moreover those deriving from celestial movements.”218 They also
emphasized that all religions have some common transcendent unity and originally all
religions are good and divine.219 The followers of this School referred all things back to
superior planes of being, and eventually to ultimate principles.220
The use of tradition in the writings of these traditionalists is equated with Philosophia
Perennis or primordial tradition.221All of the followers of this School criticized the West
and its technological advancement which destroyed traditional culture in a profound
212
In sub continent, this school of thought is known as Brelwi (both Brelwi and Deobandi are followers of the
Hanafi School of Law).
213
Qasim Zaman, The Ulama in the Contemporary Islam: Custodians of Change (UK, Oxford University Press,
2004), 1; They are called salafi the followers of Adul Wahhab and Ibn-e-Taymiyya.
214
Richard C Martin, Defenders of Reason in Islam, 14.
215
Ibid.
216
Rene Guenon, East and West (Lahore: Suhail Academy, 2002); William W. Quinn Jr., The Only Tradition
(New York: State University of New York Press, 1997), 3.
217
Rene Guenon, Crisis of the Modern World (London: Luzac & Co., 1962), 34-56.
218
Hajj Muhammad Legenhausen, “Why I am not a Traditionalist”, 2002;
http://www.religioscope.com/pdf/esotrad/legenhausen.pdf.
219
Frithjof Schuon, The Transcendent Unity of Religions, trans. (London: Faber and Faber Limited, n.d), 23-65.
220
Hajj Muhammad Legenhausen, “Why I am not a Traditionalist”, 2002;
http://www.religioscope.com/pdf/esotrad/legenhausen.pdf.
221
The Only Tradition, 3.
71
Volume 3, Issue 1
Journal of Islamic Thought and Civilization
Spring 2013
way. 222 Frithjof Schuon (1907-1998), Titus Burckhardt (1908-1984), Marco Pallis (18951989), Martin Lings (1909-2005), Seyyed Hossein Nasr (b.1933) and Huston Smith (b.
1919) 223 are the most prominent names of this school. These scholars were not only
deeply rooted in the local religious tradition whether Islamic, Hindu or Buddhist, but
were also well acquainted with the West. They insisted on participation and regular
initiation in a living tradition in order to understand and assimilate the first principles and
the esoteric teachings.224 They began to defend the integral Islamic Tradition, the tariqah
as well as the sharia, the intellectual disciplines as well as the traditional arts.225 Such
scholars base themselves on the universality of revelation stated in the Qur’ān. These
scholars and leaders sought to preserve the rhythm of traditional Islamic life as well as its
intellectual and spiritual traditions and find allies in Judaism and Christianity in
confronting the challenges of secularism as well as globalization. 226 But one thing is
important; they all emphasized the exoteric dimension of religion.
One thing should also be kept in mind while observing all traditionalist schools; once the
people who were nominated as modernists or liberal by their contemporaries became
traditional for the later ages as happened in the case of the Hanafi’s as they were called as
‘Ahl ar raaye’ by their contemporaries, and now they are nominated as traditional school,
part of Islamic traditionalism. So it is not necessary that modernists of one period would
be called traditionalist for the coming time ahead.
The development and refinement of Islamic Tradition is evident from these different
schools built up over a period of time. The opposite elements deviating from tradition
play an important role in the crystallization and maturity of Islamic Tradition.
222
Guenon states, “As the danger of the inventions, even those that are not designed to play a final role for
humanity but that nevertheless cause many catastrophes---not to mention the unsuspected troubles they create
in the terrestrial environment---as this danger, we say, will doubtless continue to grow to proportions difficult
to determine, it is permissible to think without too much improbability that it is perhaps by this method that
the modern world will achieve its own destruction if it is incapable of stopping this process while there is still
enough time; (Rene Guenon, Crisis of the Modern World [London: Luzac & Co., 1962], 144.
223
Huston Smith, Forgotten Truth: The Primordial Tradition (Lahore: Suhail Academy, 1981), 12-45.
224
The Only Tradition, 303.
225
The name of Martin Lings, Seyyed Hoseein Nasr and Frithjof Schuon is particularly mentioned in this regard
and are described in tariqa.
226
The Islamic Tradition: An Introduction, 222-224.
72
Volume 3, Issue 1
Journal of Islamic Thought and Civilization
Spring 2013
Selected Bibliography
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
al- ‘Alwani, Taha Jabir. Ijtihad. Herndon, VA: International Institute of Islamic
Thought, 1993.
Ash’as, Abu Dawood Sulaiman bin. Sunan abi Dawood, Riyadh: Darussalam li
Nashar wa Tauzi‘, 1999.
Azmi, M. Mustafa. “Isnad and its Significance,” in Hadith and Sunna: Ideals and
Realities, ed., P. K. Koya, Kuala Lumpur: Islamic Book Trust, 1996.
Azmi, M. Mustafa. Studies in Hadith Methodology and Literature. Lahore: Suhail
Academy, 2002.
Danner, Abd al Jabbar. The Islamic Tradition: An Introduction Lahore: Institute of
Islamic Culture, 1991.
Danner, Victor. “Religion and Tradition.” In In Quest of the Sacred: the Modern
World in the Light of the Tradition, edited by Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Katherine O
Brien, 22-35. Lahore: Suhail Academy, 2001.
Doi, A. Rahman I. Introduction to Hadith. Nigeria: Arewa Books, 1981.
Graham, William A. “Traditionalism in Islam: An Essay in Interpretation.” Journal
of Interdisciplinary History 23, no. 3, Religion and History (1993): 495-522,
http://www.jstor.org/
Eickelman, Dale F. James Piscotri, Muslim Politics. New Jersey: Princeton
University Press, 2000.
Guenon, Rene. Crisis of the Modern World. Translated by M. Pallis and R.
Nicholson. London: Luzac & Co., 1962.
Guenon, Rene. East and West. Lahore: Suhail Academy, 2002.
Habachy, Saba. “Islam: Factors of Stability and Change.” Columbia Law Review 54,
no. 5, Community Security vs. Man's Right to Knowledge (1954):710-718,
http://www.jstor.org/.
Hasan, Aznan. “An Introduction to Collective Ijtihad (Ijtihad Jama ‘i): Concept and
Applications.” The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences (20:2): 26- 49.
Hassan, Ahmad. The Doctrine of Ijma’ in Islam: A Study of the Juridical Principle of
Consensus. Islamabad: Islamic Research Institute, 1978.
Hassan, Ahmad. The Early Development of Islamic Jurisprudence. Islamabad:
Islamic Research institute, international Islamic University, 1994.
Islahi, Amin Ahsan. Islamic Law, Concept and Codification. Lahore: Islamic
Publishers, n.d.
Khan, Muhammad Hameedullah. The Schools of Islamic Jurisprudence: A
Comparative Study. New Delhi: Kitab Bhavan, 2001
Makdisi, George. “Muslim Institutions of Learning in Eleventh-Century Baghdad.”
Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 24, no. 1 (1961): 1-56,
http://www.jstor.org/.
Martin, Richard C., Mark R. Woodward, Dwi S. Atmaja. Defenders of Reason in
Islam: Mu‘tazlilism from Medieval School to Modern Symbol. Oxford: Oneworld
Publications, 1997.
Nakosteen, Mehdi. History of Islamic Origins of Western Education. Colorado:
University of Colorado Press, 1964.
Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. “The Meaning and Role of "Philosophy" in Islam.” Studia
Islamica XXXVII, no. 37 (1973): 57-80, http://www.jstor.org/
Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. Islamic Art and Spirituality. Cambridge: Golgonooza Press,
1987.
73
Volume 3, Issue 1
Journal of Islamic Thought and Civilization
Spring 2013
23. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. The Heart of Islam: Enduring Values for Humanity. Lahore:
Suhail Academy, 2004.
24. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. Traditional Islam in the Modern World. London: KPI
Limited, 1987.
25. Nesaburi. Abi al Hussain Muslim bin al Hajjaj bin Muslim. Jami‘Sahih Muslim.
Riyadh: Darussalm li Nashar wa Tauzi‘, 2000.
26. Nyazee, Imran Hassan Khan. Islamic Jurisprudence. Islamabad: International
Institute of Islamic Thought, 2007.
27. Qadir, C. A. Philosophy and Science in the Islamic World. New York: Croom Helm,
1988.
28. Quinn Jr., William W. The Only Tradition. New York: State University of New York
Press, 1997.
29. Rahman, Fazlur. Islam. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1979.
30. Schimmel, Annemarie. Mystical Dimensions of Islam. Chapel Hill: The University of
North Carolina Press, 1975.
31. Schuon, Frithjof. Islam and the Perennial Philosophy. London: World of Islam
Festival Publishing Company Limited, 1976.
32. Schuon, Frithjof. The Transcendent Unity of Religions, London: Faber and Faber
Limited, n.d.
33. Shalaby, Ahmad. History of Muslim Education. Karachi: Indus Publication, 1952.
34. Siddiqui, Muhammad Zubair. “The Science and the Critique of Islam.” In Hadith
and Sunna: Ideals and Realities, edited by P.K. Koya, 72-102. Kuala Lumpur:
Islamic Book Trust, 1996.
35. Siddiqui, Zubair. Hadith Literature: Its Origin, Development & Special Features.
Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society, 1993.
36. Smith, Huston. Forgotten Truth: The Primordial Tradition. Lahore: Suhail
Academy, 1981.
37. Stanton, Charles Michael. Higher Learning in Islam: The Classical Period A.D. 7001300. Mary Land: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 1990.
38. Zaman, Qasim. The Ulama in the Contemporary Islam: Custodians of Change. UK,
Oxford University Press, 2004.
74