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Ecology The Biosphere Ecosystems and Communities Biosphere Human Interactions Levels of Organization • Individual organism – first level of organization • Species – group of organisms that can breed and produce fertile offspring • Population – members of the same species that live in the same area • Community – different populations living in a defined area • Ecosystem – all organisms living in a particular place along with the nonliving environment • Biome – a group of ecosystems with the same climate and similar dominant communities • Biosphere – the Earth Levels of Organization Energy Flow • Sunlight is the main energy source for life on Earth • Autotrophs/Producers – organisms that use energy from sunlight or chemicals to produce food • Photosynthesis – process of using light energy to create bonds in glucose • Chemosynthesis – process of using chemicals to produce carbohydrates Energy Flow Energy Flow • Heterotrophs/Consumers – organisms that rely on other organisms for their energy and food supply • Herbivores – organisms that obtain energy by eating only plants • Carnivores – organisms that obtain energy from eating only animals • Omnivores – organisms that obtain energy from eating plants and animals • Detritivores – organisms that obtain energy from eating plant and animal remains and other dead matter • Decomposers – organisms that obtain energy from breaking down organic matter Feeding Relationships • Food chain – a series of steps in which organisms transfer energy be eating and being eaten • Food web – a network of complex interactions among feeding relationships between various organisms in an ecosystem • Trophic level – each step in a food chain or food web Feeding Relationships • Predation – a relationship in which one species eats another species • Camouflage – the colors or patterns on animals that help them hide in their surroundings Feeding Relationships • Symbiosis – a relationship in which two different species live in close association • Parasitism – a symbiotic relationship in which one organism feeds off another organisms • Host – an organism that is food for a parasite Feeding Relationships • Mutualism – a symbiotic relationship in which both organisms benefit • Commensalism – a symbiotic relationship in which one organism benefits and the other is not affected Feeding Relationships Ecological Pyramids • Energy pyramid – energy stored in on level is passed on to the next; only about 10 percent of the energy available within one tropic level is tranfered to organisms at the next trophic level • Biomass pyramid – total amount living tissue within a given trophic level • Number pyramid – number of individual organisms at each trophic level Ecological Pyramids Ecological Pyramids The Water Cycle The Water Cycle • Evaporation – the process by which water changes from liquid form to an atmospheric gas • Transpiration – the process by which water evaporates from the leaves of plants • Precipitation – water falling from the atmosphere in the form of rain or snow • Condensation – the process by which water changes from atmospheric gas to liquid form • Run-off – water moving along the surface of the Earth • Seepage – water being absorbed by the soil • Root uptake – water being absorbed by plants The Carbon Cycle The Carbon Cycle • Photosynthesis – process of converting CO2 into glucose • Respiration – process of converting glucose into CO2 • Decomposition/Deposition – process of returning carbon compounds to soil • Volcanic activity – puts CO2 into atmosphere from interior of Earth The Nitrogen Cycle The Nitrogen Cycle • Nitrogen fixation – bacteria converting nitrogen gas from the atmosphere into ammonia • Denitrification – soil bacteria convert nitrates into nitrogen gas • Ammonium – a nitrogen-containing compound used to cycle nitrogen into an ecosystem • Nitrate – a nitrogen-containing compound used directly by plants Climate • Climate – the average, year-after-year conditions of temperature and precipitation in a particular region • Weather – day-to-day condition of Earth’s atmosphere at a particular time and place • The Greenhouse Effect – Carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, and a few other atmospheric gases trap heat energy and maintain Earth’s temperature range. Climate • As a result of the differences in latitude and angle of heating, Earth has three main climate zones, polar, temperate and tropical. Heat Transport • Unequal heating of the Earth drives wind currents. Warm air currents rise, while cold air currents sink. • Also, unequal heating causes ocean currents. Warm ocean currents rise, while cold ocean currents sink. • Landmasses affect the movement of wind and ocean currents. Heat Transfer Biomes • Terrestrial – having to do with the Earth • Tropical forest – a terrestrial biome with many trees and organisms • Savanna – a terrestrial biome with grasses and grazing animals • Desert – a very dry terrestrial biome • Chaparral – a terrestrial biome with many shrubs Biome • Temperate grassland – a terrestrial biome with fertile soil and tall grasses • Temperate deciduous forest – a terrestrial biome with wet forests that change activity during the winter • Coniferous forest – a dry, cold terrestrial biome with cone-bearing trees • Tundra – a cold, dry terrestrial biome with shrubs and small trees • Permafrost – permanently frozen soil Aquatic Ecosystems • Freshwater wetlands: water covers the soil or is present at or near the surface of the soil for part of the year. Examples: bogs, marshes, and swamps. • Estuaries: formed where rivers meet the seas. Detritus: tiny pieces of organic material • Salt marshes (temperate-zone) and mangrove swamps (tropical-zone) Aquatic Ecosystems Aquatic Ecosystems Aquatic Ecosystems • Photic zone – well-lit upper layer • Aphotic zone – permanently dark • Intertidal zone – submerged in water and exposed to atmosphere • Coastal ocean – low tide mark to the end of continental shelf • Coral reefs – named for coral animals whose hard, calcium carbonate skeleton make up their structure Aquatic Ecosystems • Determined by the depth, flow, temperature and chemistry of the overlying water. • Freshwater: Flowing water and standing water – Flowing water: rivers, streams, creeks, and brooks that flow over land – Standing water: lakes and ponds containing free-floating organisms (plankton) Populations • Population density – the number of individuals in a population in a particular area • Sample – a part that represents an entire population • Stability –the ability of a community to resist change • Niche – the role an organism plays in the community Populations • Growth rate – the amount by which a population’s size changes in a given time • Carrying capacity – the largest density an ecosystem can support for a particular population • Density-dependent factor – a factor related to the density of a population that affects population size • Density-independent factor – a factor that affects population size, but does not depend on the population density Populations • Competition – when organisms try to use the same resources • Immigrate – to move into a population • Emigrate – to leave a population • Boom-bust cycle – a period in which the densities of populations increase or decrease at the same time Populations • Uniform – when a population spreads out evenly through an ecosystem • Clumped – when a population spreads out in small groups through an ecosystem • Random – when a population has no order as to how it is distribution through an ecosystem Ecological Succession • Ecosystems are constantly changing in response to natural and human disturbances. As an ecosystem changes, older inhabitants gradually die out and new organisms move in, causing further changes in the community. • Pioneer species – first species to populate the area. Ecological Succession Human Impact • Most populations eventually reach carrying capacity in their ecosystems. • However, humans do not follow this pattern. When food or space becomes limited, humans find other resources to meet their needs. Scientists do not know the carrying capacity for humans. • Currently, the population of the world is 6 billion. To meet their needs, humans at times harm or damage other organisms in their ecosystems. Human Impact • As humans go through their daily lives, they produce a large amount of trash and waste. • Waste products are often disposed of in certain areas that were once habitats. • Humans do not use some of these areas. However, they litter the land and water around them. This trash can harm or kill other organisms. Human Impact • Pollution – anything added to the environment that is harmful to living things • Chemical runoff – the chemical waste produced on land that enters water sources • Eutrophication – a process in which chemical runoff causes algae growth that chokes out other organisms in a water ecosystem Human Impact • Acid rain – rain that is caused by pollution and is harmful to organisms because it is acidic Human Impact • Greenhouse effect – the warming of the atmosphere because of trapped heat energy from the sun • Ozone – a form of oxygen • Solar energy enters the atmosphere. However, instead of reflecting back into space, greenhouse gases trap the energy in the atmosphere. This causes overall global warming. Human Impact • Land development – the changes people make to natural land so it becomes land for farming or living space • Deforestation – the removal of forest ecosystems for land development Human Impact • Introduced species – a species taken from its natural ecosystem and placed in another ecosystem • Examples: Kudzu, snakehead fish Human Impact • Conservation biology – the science of using ecological information to help reduce damage to the environment • Landfill – an area where trash is collected and stored • Recycling – using waste products to create new products • Emission – a chemical waste given off as has Human Impact • Reserve – a protected area that cannot bu used for building or growth • Landscape ecology – using ecological information to help balance human and environmental needs • Protecting ecosystems helps protect species that live in them. Hunting seasons are times when certain animals can be hunted or fished. Human Impact • Endangered species have only a small number of individuals. Most countries have laws that protect the species on the endangered species list. • Recovery plan – a plan using scientific knowledge to help bring endangered species back from possible extinction • Biodiversity – total of all life on Earth Human Impact • Geology – the study of the nonliving parts of the Earth • Biogeology – the study of the interaction between living and nonliving parts of the environment • Engineering – the use of math and science to create methods and machines to help solve problems or make life better • Engineer – person who works in engineering Human Impact • Technology – any device, machine, or method designed to solve a human problem or question • Medical technology – any technology designed to solve a medical problem • Patents – a government notice of ownership for a piece of technology • Scientific journal – a scientific magazine • The goal of scientists is to understand the natural world and solve problems to make life better.