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5. HRM - Organizational behaviour - Perception and Impression Management Perception is a process by which an individual gives meaning to the environment. It involves organising and interpreting various stimuli into a psychological experience. Perception helps individuals select, organise, store, and interpret stimuli into a meaningful and coherent picture of the world. Because each person gives her own meaning to stimuli, different individuals “see” the same thing in different ways. The way an employee sees a situation often has such much greater meaning for understanding behaviour than does the situation itself. The Perceptual Proces The person´s perceptual process: Organizing and translating Reality in work organisation Stimuli (eg. the organisation´s reward systém, the style of persuasion used by a supervisor Factors influencing perception Observation of the stimuli - Stereotyping Selectivity Self-concept Situation Needs Emotions Outcomes Evaluation and interpretation of reality A response behavior Attitudes formed Because perception involves acquiring specific knowledge about objects or events at any particular moment, it occurs whenever stimuli activate the senses. Because perception involves cognition /poznávání/, it includes the interpretation of objects, symbols, and people in the light of pertinent experiences. In other words, perception involves receiving stimuli, organizing them, and translating or interpreting the organized stimuli to influence behaviour and form attitudes. Each person selects various cues that influence his perceptions of people, objects, and symbols. Because of these factors and their potential imbalance, people often misperceive another person, group, or object. To a considerable extent, people interpret the behaviour of others in the context of the setting in which they find themselves. The following organizational examples point out how perception influences behavior: A manager believes that an employee is given opportunities to use his judgement about how to do the job, while the employee feels that he has absolutely no freedom to make judgements. A subordinate’s response to a supervisor’s request is based on what she thought she heard the supervisor say, not on what was actually requested. The manager considers the product sold to be of high quality, but the customer making a complaint feels that it´s poorly made. An employee is viewed by one colleague as a hard worker who gives good effort and by another colleague as a poor worker who expends no effort. Managers must recognise that perceptual differences exist. It was proven that the perceptions of superiors and subordinates concerning amounts and types of recognition that subordinates received for good performance. Both supervisors and subordinates were asked how often superiors provided them rewards for good work. Perceptual Gap between Supervisors and Subordinates Type of Recognition Privileges More responsibility Sincere and though praise Training for better jobs More interesting work Supervisors´ perceptions of frequency (%) 52 82 80 64 51 Subordinates´ perceptions of frequency (%) 14 13 14 9 5 The study illustrates how marked differences may exist between superiors´ and subordinates´ perception of the same events. Impression Management The three component model of social psychological process involved in impression management is shown to illustrate the points in the process which the variables are most likely to influence. Social context Personal context Interactions gone awry personality self-awareness Impression monitoring: aware of others’ impressions Current image others control outcomes social constraints desired identities self-concept Impression motivation: Wants to influence other´s impressions target values current image potential image outcome value self-concept desired identity Impression construction: choose impressions to manage Effective strategies of ingratiation /zalíbení se/ - using impression management (goal is to be liked) Opinion conformity Based on power differentials, typically imitation of attitudes and behaviour by a subordinate. Successful opinion conformity is based on mixing disagreement with agreement. Yielding: expressing initial disagreement and gradually changing to agreement. Favour-doing norm or reciprocity is a universal rule social behaviour. Ingratiator may often seek liking rather than exchange of gifts, leading to behaviour which cannot be readily reciprocated, to trigger a feeling of indebtedness. Flattery and compliments Making compliments credible, through effective timing so that delivery of it should not be linked with desired goal. Frequency: should be used sparingly. Discernment: indiscriminate /nekritický/ use is likely to fail, best way is to mix it with criticism. The integrator’s dilemma: the greater the person’s need to engage in ingratiation, the more likely it is that ingratiation attempts will be detected and fail. Three components are: motivational – the incentive value cognitive – the subjective probability of success ethical – perceived legitimacy To resolve the dilemma, factors associated with successful ingratiation are: avoidance of blatant /očividný/ ingratiation by adopting a complicating strategy disclosure of obstacles to successful performance reducing salience of power differentials (by making ingratiation when power differentials are not salient) As another source of info about perception you can use Joan Harveys´ materials “Perception”. More about impression management you can find in Joan Harveys´ materials “Attribution Theory and Impression Management”, pg 3-5 or in HRM question n. 19 If there is anything unclear, try to ask me:-) (Milena 71 91 01 65) Good luck!!!