Download AP Unit 0: Chemical Foundations

AP UNIT 0:
SUMMER PACKET
Lundquist
CHEMICAL
FOUNDATIONS
Unit 0.1
Matter
◦ takes up space, has mass,
exhibits inertia
◦ composed of atoms only
100 or so different types
Matter
◦ Most reactions are reversible
Chemistry
◦ The study of matter, energy, and the changes between the two
◦ Central science
◦ EVERYTHING relates to chemistry
MHS
Scientific Method
◦ Good Experimental design is
key
◦ Lots of repetitions
◦ Few contaminants
◦ Theory – explain WHY
◦ Theory of evolution: why we
all share the same genetic
makeup but are different
◦ Law – something that
consistently happens
◦ Law of gravity: everything
falls down
Scientific Laws in Chemistry
Law of conservation of mass
Law of conservation of
energy
◦ Massreactant = Massproducts
◦ First law of thermodynamics
◦ The reason reactions must
be balanced
◦ Energyrxt=Energyprod
Energy can not be created or destroyed only rearranged into various
forms. Even matter is simply an organized form of energy.
Units of measurement
Metric System (SI Units)
◦ A gram is how many
molecules are in a mole of
hydrogen
◦ 1oC is the amount of energy
1g water has.
◦ A joule is the amount of
energy it takes to raise that
by 1oc
English system
◦ A lb, a gallon, a calorie
have NOTHING in common
Base Units
Powers of 10
Derived Units
Volume
◦ Amount of space a
substance occupies
◦ Unit is Liters (L)
◦ Commonly used milliliters (mL)
◦
Mass and Weight
Mass
Weight
◦ Grams (g)
◦ A force (N)
◦ Resistance to changes in
motion (inertia)
◦ The response of mass to
gravity
◦ Amount of matter present
◦ VIDEO
◦ Varies with altitude – the
closer you are to the source
the stronger the pull
Though you will hear them interchangeably they
are NOT the same.
Measurements
Accuracy
Precision
◦ correctness
◦ Reproducibility
◦ How close a value is to an
Accepted value
◦ How close your values are to
each other
Precision
◦ The degree to which a
measurement is known
◦ What a devise is rated for
◦ On analog devised always
report ±10%
◦ Always go 1 place past what
a devise is rated for
Significant Figures
◦ What values are KNOWN
◦ Help define the precision of
the measurements
◦ Counting numbers = ∞
◦ There are 3 sheep
◦ known values = ∞
◦ 1 mole is 6.022 x
1023
◦ ALL others must follow these
rules:
1. Non-zeroes are significant
◦ 49 = 2 sig fig
◦ 523 = 3 sig fig
2. Zeros are placeholders
◦ 100 = 1 sig fig
◦ 0.047 = 2 sig fig
3. Zero can be significant if:
1. It is sandwiched
◦ 101 = 3 sig figs
◦ 60200 = 3 sig fig
2. It is at the end & after a
decimal
◦ 0.003020 = 4 sig fig
◦ 100.00200 = 8 sig fig
Using Sig Figs
Adding & Subtracted
Multiplying & Dividing
◦ Carry out the math
◦ Carry out the math
◦ Round to the LEAST number
of decimal places
◦ Round to the LEAST number
of sig. figs
100. + 0.50 = 100.50 ≈100
100. x 0.05 = 5 ≈ 5.0
AP significant figures
ALWAYS REPORT 3 SIGNIFICANT
FIGURES
The AP test will have 1 point testing your knowledge of sig. figs.
Other wise they will accept answers that are ±1 sig fig. All most
every question has 3 sig. fig. Therefore if you report with 3 sig fig
always you’re most likely to get it correct.
Dimensional Analysis
◦ Stringing proportions along
so that the units cancel out
◦ Works because proportions
are reversible
Temperature
◦ Fahrenheit
◦ Based off the brine water
◦ Not representative of kinetic
energy
◦ Celsius
◦ Based off pure water
◦ Not representative of kinetic
energy
◦ Kelvin
◦ Based off kinetic energy in
matter
Density
◦ How compact the atoms of
a substance are
◦ Dense objects sink below
those with lower densities
◦ Temperature dependent
States of Matter
NOT ABOUT BONDS, all about attractions (IMFs)
Solids
◦ STRONG IMFs
◦ Hold molecules/atoms as
close together as possible
◦ Hold a shape
◦ Have a volume (can’t get
closer together)
◦ Movement is vibrational only
States of Matter
NOT ABOUT BONDS, all about attractions (IMFs)
Liquid
◦ strong IMFs
◦ Hold molecules/atoms close
together but they are able
to move around one
another
◦ Have a volume (can’t get
closer together)
◦ Movement doesn’t allow a
shape
◦ Movement is proportional to
temperature
States of Matter
NOT ABOUT BONDS, all about attractions (IMFs)
Gas
◦ NO IMFs
◦ molecules/atoms have NO
attraction and therefore
spread out (2nd law of
thermo.)
◦ Space between them is
INFINIANT compared to their
own volume (can be
compressed)
◦ Movement is proportional to
temperature
Vocabulary
Atom
◦ Smallest unit of matter
Molecule / Compound
◦ 2 or more atoms
Vocabulary
Pure substance
◦ Any substance with a
uniform composition
Vocabulary
Mixture
◦ 2 or more pure substances
Vocabulary
Homogeneous Mixture
◦ Equal distribution of particles
throughout
◦ Air
◦ Milk
◦ Alloys
Heterogeneous Mixture
◦ Visibly distinguishable parts
◦ Oil & water
◦ Underwater lakes
Separation of Mixtures
based on physical properties
Filtration
Fractional Crystallization
Separation of Mixtures
based on physical properties
Distillation
Chromatography
ATOMS,
MOLECULES,
AND IONS
Unit 0.2
History
◦ Blacksmithing used ore since
1000BCE
◦ Greek philosophers
proposed that everything
was made of the 4
“elements”
◦ Democritus proposed that
there was an invisible
component of stuff called
“atomos”
History
Alchemy for the next 2000
years
◦ Constant pursuit of Au
◦ Lots of BAD science
◦ Based on belief and
mythology
◦ But some good science
◦ Developed a structure for the
scientific method
◦ Theory development & peer
review
History
Robert Boyle (16th centery)
◦ First chemist to perform
numerical experiments on
gases and changes in
volume
◦ First to develop an theory of
elements
History
Combustion
◦ Stahl – burnt objects release
“phlogiston” which
saturated the air and puts
the fire out
◦ Priestley – dephlogisticated
air is actually oxygen an
element
History
◦ Priestley’s discovery lead to an
explosion in combustion
research (hahaha)
◦ CO2, H2, N2, and O2 are
discovered
◦ Lavoisier
◦ Defined combustion
(when something burns in air
and produces 1+ oxides)
◦ Writes first chemistry textbook
◦ Published the law of
conservation of mass
◦ Executed during the French
revolution because he was a
tax collector
The Law of Conservation of Mass
Matter can not be created nor
destroyed
History
Dalton
The Law of Definite Proportions
A compound always contains the
same ratio of its elements
◦ Proposed the law of definite
proportions
◦ Went on to develop the
atomic theory of matter
History
Dalton
◦ Also proposed the law of
multiple proportions
◦ Elements form in whole
number ratios, different
compounds are those
elements
in different
ratios
The Law of Multiple Proportions:
When two elements combine to form a series of
compounds, the ratios of the masses of the second
element that combine with 1 gram of the first element can
always be reduced to small whole numbers.
History
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
◦ All matter is made of atoms.
◦ Indivisible
◦ indestructible
◦ All the atoms of an element are
identical
◦ in both weight and chemical
properties.
◦ Each element is unique
◦ Compounds are formed by the
combination of different atoms in
the ratio of small whole numbers.
◦ A chemical reaction involves only
the rearrangement of atoms;
◦ atoms are not created / destroyed
History & Now
Dalton’s atomic theory
◦ Modifications:
◦ Atoms can be destroyed
(Manhattan project)
◦ Atoms of a element do differ
mass (known as isotopes –
some have more neutrons)
◦ There are things smaller then
an atom (p+, n0, e-)
History
Gay-Lussac
◦ Found that if you heat a gas
it expands
Avogadro
◦ Hypothesized, using GayLussac’s work, that the more
gas you had the greater the
volume it would occupy
◦ Was ignored for 5 decades

People started look into the
atom
History
J. J. Thomson
◦ Using the newly discovered
vaccuum
◦ Passed an electrical current
a “ray” was made at the
cathode (-- end)
◦ Called it a cathode ray
◦ Ray was attracted to (+)
poles and repelled by (-)
ones
History
J. J. Thomson
◦ Found ALL metals produced
this ray
◦ SO all matter contained this
(-) thing, now called an
electron
◦ Found that the charge was
-1.76 x 108 C/g
◦ Since metals are neutral
there had to be something
positive to cancel it out
◦ Plum Pudding Model
History
Millikan
◦ Found the mass of an
electron using Oil
Electrons Mass = 9.11 × 10−31 kg.
History
Becquerel
◦ Found that substances
coated in U produced an
image without light
◦ Coined the term radioactive
◦ The U was releasing material
◦ 3 types (discovered later)
◦ Alpha
◦ Beta
4
2
0
𝐻𝑒
−1
◦ Gamma
𝑒 −1
g
0
0
History
Rutherford
◦ Tested the plumb pudding
model
◦ Set up U to release a
particles at Au foil
◦ Since the a’s were so big they
should blast through the foil
History
Rutherford
◦ Several particles were
deflected
◦ Reasoned that there had to
be a dense core to the
atom
◦ Was positive
◦ Developed the nuclear
model
◦ Most of the atom must be
empty space
HURRAY NO MORE HISTORY
TODAY!!!
Modern Atomic Structure
Elements
◦ Anything made out of only one
type of atom
◦ 92 natural, everything else is
manmade
◦ All matter is made of them,
just different combinations
◦ Compounds – combinations
of 2+ elements
◦ Molecules – 2+ atoms
Atomic Structure
Atomic Symbols
◦ Element name
◦ Atomic number (Z)
◦ AKA nuclear charge
◦ Symbol
◦ 1 upper case, 0-2 lower case
◦ Average atomic mass
◦ Average of every known
atom
◦ Weighted average
◦ Atomic mass (A)
◦ Generally rounded for
Isotope notation
Isotope
Notation
Atomic Mass
◦ The sum of p+ and n0
◦ The mass of an e- is
negligible
Isotopes
DON’T MESS THIS UP!
◦ Atoms of the same element
(same nuclear charge)
◦ Different MASS
◦ Change in the number of
NEUTRONS!
The Periodic Table
Ductile
Malleable
Luster
“sea of electrons”
Good conductors
The Periodic Table
Some have odd symbols
The Periodic Table
Most reactive metals
Not found in nature
When mixed with water
produce heat and H2 (g)
The Periodic Table
Form basic solutions when
placed in water (OH-)
The Periodic Table
WIDE variety of properties
The Periodic Table
MOST reactive elements
NOT found in nature
Extreme oxidizers (steal e-)
The Periodic Table
Inert (non-reactive)
Low energy
Have electrons in a “stable
octet”
Don’t form compounds
(except Xe in extreme
conditions)
Molecules and Ions
Electrons are the only subatomic particles
involved in bonding and chemical reactions
Chemical bonds 
intramolecular forces
Molecules and Ions
Ionic Bonds
◦ Salts
◦ Formula is the simplest ratio
of ions to each other
◦ Cation
◦ (+) ions
◦ Less electrons
Metals
◦ Anions
Nonmetals
◦ (-) ions
◦ Polyatomic ions – groups of
elements more stable in a
particular ratio
◦ More electrons
Molecules and Ions
Covalent Bonds
◦ Molecules
Nonmetals
◦ Share electrons
◦ Individual ratios of each
element
◦ Formulas are the ACTUAL
number of each element
present
Nomenclature
Ionic Bonds
◦ Based on charges
◦ Known charges are NOT
noted
◦ Cations are named first!
Nomenclature
Number
Prefix
1
Mono-
2
Di-
3
Tri-
4
Tetra-
5
Penta-
6
Hexa-
7
Hepta-
8
Octa-
9
Nona-
10
Deca-
Covalent Bonds
◦ Based on ACTUAL number of
each element present
◦ Use prefixes
◦ Least electronegative
element goes first
◦ Central element goes first
◦ Element furthest from fluorine
goes first
◦ Mono cannot be used on
the first element
Nomenclature
Acids
◦ Start with Hydrogen
◦ Named based off ionic
nomenclature
◦ -ate  -ic acid
◦ -ite  -ous acid
◦ -ide  hydro- -ic acid
Nomenclature
Antique names
Formula
Name
H2O
Water
NH3
Ammonia
CH4
Methane