Download Using Adventure Based Learning activities to enhance deep

Using Adventure Based Learning activities to enhance deep learning in a tertiary
setting.
1.
Background to the Practice
This project is a about sharing a practice which has been successful in promoting a deeper learning
approach amongst under graduate students, including enhancing their ability in critical thinking and
praxis. The practice is also beneficial in developing students’ teaching of others, for those students
who may progress onto a career in education. It will be referred to as the Praxis in Outdoor
Experiential Methods, (POEM) for the rest of this paper. The term praxis is used to refer to the
critical action philosophy of the method.
Adventure Based Learning as a concept
Adventure Based Learning has been around since about the 1970’s. It has its roots in the Outward
Bound movement, (http://www.outwardbound.co.nz) where adventure and the outdoors are used as a
medium for personal development, community building and for facilitating environmental
awareness. Jerry Peih was an influential figure, who grew up in the Minnesota Outward Bound
school that his father directed. Later, as principal of Hamilton-Wenham High school in 1971 (in
Hamilton, Massachusets, USA), he set up a scheme to improve student community and motivation.
This scheme aimed to bring the benefits of Adventure Based Learning to the masses and this was
done by setting up ropes courses and initiative exercises in urban areas. From this scheme, Project
Adventure emerged as an organization, and it has developed a whole curriculum of principles and
activities, which have been documented in detail elsewhere (Rohnke, 1984; Schoel, Prouty &
Radcliffe, 1998; Schoel & Stratton, 1990; http://www.aee.org.) The POEM mainly uses the
initiative and probem solving exercises of this method and these can all be implemented in the
grounds of a tertiary institute or a school, or even in a classroom.
Adventure Based Learning principles have been applied and adapted and numerous models and
guidelines have been developed over the years. Those that are most relevant to POEM will be
explained here, but note that there are others, which can be sourced from the references.
Experiential Education
In the early decades of the 20th century, John Dewey started to ponder the practice of education and
wrote his views on the importance of experience in education (Experience and Education, 1938).
Dewey has written prolifically and “Democracy and education” (1916) and his thinking had a strong
influence on the experiential education movement and is still valid today. Outdoor Education, is
experiential in nature, however it can still be taught in a very teacher led and didactic way and thus
miss out on some of the deeper learning (see 1.3) and values based learning (see 1.6) that could be
gained. This is acceptable if skill learning is the main focus of a session. However, Outdoor
Education can support learning in a wide range of areas from knowledge to values, (see 1.5) if it is
subjected to the rigour of critical thinking (see 1.4). Experiential Education covers a broader range of
applications as it can be implemented in the classroom, the outdoors, the workplace, with the family
and in life in general. Experiential learning is about reflecting on and learning from, our experiences
and it is believed to effect a deeper level of learning due to the increase in the number of brain wiring
pathways that get utilised during the process (see 3.4.5). Experiential education is, according to Itin
(1999), effectively a teaching philosophy that supports the use of experiential methods in facilitated
learning sessions. POEM uses a mixture of teacher led and experiential methods to benefit students.
Deep and Surface learning
The notion of ‘deep learning’ evolved from the idea of learning being ‘meaningful’ to the learner.
One of the earlier researchers in the area was Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909). He did many
psychological tests on memory and found that meaningfulness made learning easier. Much later,
Marton (1975, as cited in Biggs & Moore, 1993) did further work to highlight two approaches to
learning; these being surface (memorising words used) and deep (discovering the authors meaning).
Following this, several authors (Biggs, 1987; Entwhistle & Ramsden, 1983; Watkins, 1983)
identified three approaches to learning, which they labelled surface, deep and achieving. Biggs and
Moore promoted the deep approach further and the concept of learning being the construction of
meaning became a common understanding in educational circles and has been given the term
constructivism. This has its roots in some of Piaget’s () work and Russian Psychologist, Vygotsky
(cited in Mcgee & Fraser) developed it further into social constructivism, which acknowledges the
role people play in each others learning. Biggs and Moore claim that, “ Deep learning changes the
way the world appears and is understood.” and “ Deep learning is ideally what school learning
should involve.” (p.312).
It is generally accepted that once a student has reached tertiary level, they have developed a deep
approach to learning. However, this is not true in many cases, especially those in which the students
had never been given the opportunity for deep learning at school. The POEM, coaches the students
in developing a deeper approach to learning and it makes use of Adventure Based Learning activities
and principles as part of this. It also trains the students as educators and supports them in facilitating
a deep approach to learning in the groups that they may end up teaching and leading.
1.4 Critical thinking
Critical thinking is one of the skills highlighted in the graduate profile of the courses using POEM
and is evident across the board in tertiary institutes today. Moon (2005, p. 5) states that, “ critical
thinking would seem to be associated with the taking of a deep approach to learning and not the
taking of a surface approach.” Moon also states that critical thinking emphasises the reprocessing of
material that has been learned and “ although critical thinking is very much in the language of
education, it remains a word that has multiple and unclear meanings.” (p. 17). Wurdinger (1999)
explains further, that it is way of thinking in which we identify assertions and challenge assumptions
that are evident in the assertions. Brookfield (1995) gives a comprehensive dissertation on critical
thinking for teachers, in his book “Becoming a critically reflective teacher “. In the context of
POEM the application of critical thinking could be summed up as “ an approach that includes
emotional as well as cognitive and whole person functioning.” (Moon, 2005 p.7). Also, Barnett
(cited in Moon p. 7) goes a step further to describe a ‘critical being’ as one who has made progress in
their development of critical thinking, has a critical viewpoint on the world and is willing to act on
that view. Such an approach has been termed praxis by Mattsson and Kemmis (2007), and is a
foundational principle in POEM.
Thinking critically has many branches, but the two that POEM addresses in the most part are the
personal skill and critical pedagogy. When thinking critically about our personal beliefs and actions
we need to step outside of our thinking and look at the processes we are going through with a critical
eye. Such a process has been termed ‘ metacognition’ by Biggs and Moore (1993) and referred
mainly to our understanding of our cognitive processes. Brookfield (1995) takes personal critical
reflection further with a whole section of his book being devoted to looking at our ways of operating
as teachers and how they might be disempowering to our students. This links with the whole critical
pedagogy movement, which has sprung out of critical theory (Foucault, date; Lyotard, date) and
advocates applying the principles of critical theory to our pedagogy (Giroux, 1994; Friere, date).
These principles include the exposure of power issues and hegemony that are evident in society
today. Kellner’s (2000) words provide useful description of the role of critical pedagogy in current
society; “ Critical pedagogy considers how education can provide individuals with the tools to better
themselves and strengthen democracy, to create a more egalitarian and just society, and thus deploy
education in a process of progressive social change.”
Domains of learning
Educators often use the terms facts, concepts, skills, attitudes and values to describe the depth of
learning that may be occurring as a result of an education experience (Knapp, 1998 p. 7). Jarvis,
Holford and Griffin (1998, p. 8) use a similar list of terms to define learning; these being knowledge,
skills, attitudes, values, emotions, beliefs and senses. Awareness is another term to add to this list
and Cooper (1998, p. 7) uses the terms awareness, knowledge, skills, attitudes, values and action in a
simple model for environmental education. Schunk (2000) uses the terms knowledge, skills,
strategies, beliefs, attitudes and behaviours (p. 1). In summary, as educators we are developing in our
students the knowledge, concepts, skills, awareness, attitudes and values to be able to live a
productive and happy life in the 21st century. Most experiential learning curricula facilitate learning
in all these domains and POEM does this with relative success. The benefits of teaching across the
range of these domains, have been observed by educators over the years. Education is about the
development of the whole person, and not just about filling empty vessels with information. The fact
that experiential education can facilitate learning in all these domains, can now also be supported by
brain theory. This link has already been detailed by authors such as Knapp (1998), Frank (2001) and
Hannaford (1995). If we teach to all the depths of learning described above, we are teaching to the
whole person and we are more likely to facilitate learning in the holistic sense.
Current national curriculum documents (England, Scotland, Northern Ireland, Australia, New
Zealand as cited in Claxton, 2008, p. 117) have broadened out from the traditional views of
knowledge as information, to knowledge as including attitudes and behaviours. Understanding these
concepts is vital to trainee teachers as they will be the ones expected to implement such a broad
application of educational principles in their teaching. Current teachers who trained before these
concepts became important will also need to update their methods to include these broader
approaches. In Outdoor Education at tertiary level, the idea of addressing attitudes and behaviours,
both in the tertiary students themselves, and for their teaching of others, has become quite
widespread. As described earlier in the writing on Adventure Based Learning, Outdoor Education
has the capacity to educate at a depth that is less evident in the classroom because of the engagement
in the learning that can be generated by being outside and experiencing a learning moment. It is
becoming increasingly evident that such methods of teaching are just as valid at tertiary level as they
are at school level. The POEM models such methods at tertiary level.
1.6 Values in Education
The rise in emphasis on critical theory, feminist theories and other constructs of social awareness has
impacted on higher education in the last decade. Education is a medium for social change. Teaching
students to think critically and metacognitively around their own actions has been seen as a key to
intellectual development. Intelligence, is no longer about how much you know and what you can do,
its also about who you are being and the concept of emotional intelligence (Goleman, 1995) has
become a useful label for what used to be known as “character”. The educated person of the 21st
century will need to be able to adapt to the fast changing postmodern world and contend with the
worlds’ social and environmental problems.
Mortlock (2000, 2009) has written in depth on values in Outdoor Education and has stressed the need
for values education to become part of all education. He identifies problems included in the realm of
critical theory, (which focuses on social problems), but goes beyond that to include environmental
problems and the role that education must now play in attempting reduce the impact humans are
having on the earth. Mortlocks list of virtues to be developed in the general population include
compassion, integrity, humility and vitality. Outward Bound have a similar list of values including
compassion and integrity, and also greatness and responsibility. Mortlock goes as far as saying that a
goal of education should be to develop in people;
“ An awareness, love, and respect of ourselves, balanced against an awareness, love, respect of
others, balanced against an awareness, love, respect of the environment.”
These principles and values are close to the vision for the Outdoor Programmes at CPIT, which is:
“To provide leadership and scholarship in outdoor education and adventure recreation in order to
enrich individuals and society; and to contribute to the sustainability of the natural environment.”
The POEM plays a role in the growth of the undergraduates within this vision.
The values mentioned above can be compared to the vision of the NZ school curriculum (2007) and
its emphasis on schools developing citizens who will be confident, connected, actively involved,
lifelong learners, who will play a role in securing a sustainable social, cultural, economic and
environmental future for New Zealand. Such values are relevant to tertiary education too and a
greater depth of critical thinking and praxis is required from tertiary graduates when compared to
school graduates. (What sort of citizen would a tertiary graduate be, who knew all the skills of
accounting, but nothing about critical theory or ecology?)
Tertiary teacher trainees would also benefit from learning the methods of encouraging critical
thinking and deep and values based learning in others. In fact many tertiary courses would benefit
from using some of the ideas the POEM.
2. Relevant learning models and principles
2.1 Domains of learning
As discussed in 1.5, the POEM facilitates learning in a range of domains or areas.
Information: This is about knowing something and is taken to cover factual knowledge or
Concepts:
Skills:
Awareness:
Attitudes:
Values:
information
This is a deeper level of knowing and requires a certain amount of
understanding
These can be in a physical or mental domain and are about being able to do
something
This is about a deeper level of knowing and implies a certain degree of critical
thinking. ( eg, a student may know that dominating a discussion is detrimental to the
rest of the class, but they may not be aware that they are doing it. The same applies
to bigger issues)
These include approaches to learning and general attitudes to life, study,
work, peers, tutors, society, or the environment.
These are a persons underlying beliefs. They are deeply embedded in our
persona and have developed mainly under the influence of our parents
initially, and later our peers and sometimes our education. As educators we
cannot pretend to teach values and do not have the right to indoctrinate our
values on to others. However, we can generate learning situations in which
values are debated and give students the chance to make an informed
decision about their values. We can also role model values, which are
beneficial to a caring society, which is ultimately an underlying theme in
critical pedagogy.
To aid students in remembering these areas of learning, the POEM uses a rainbow model as pictured below. The areas of
learning tend to get deeper nearer to the centre of the rainbow, but it does not necessarily mean that these concepts sit on a
continuum in the order shown. Using colours and shapes as a memory tool is a method documented by Prashnig (1997) to
enhance learning. It has been observed that if students have these concepts as a background to their teaching, they are more
aware of the various depths of their knowledge construction.
i refers to the inner
instincts, intuitions
and personality
traits which underlie
all our thoughts and
actions
information
can be surface or deep
concepts
skills
awareness
attitudes
values
i
Figure 2.1 Domains of Learning ( Rainbow metaphor)
usually deep
Experiential learning cycles
There are many versions of experiential learning cycles, and two common constructs to them all are
experience and reflection. A key factor, which contributes to the success of the POEM, is the fact that the
method and models are explained to the students, so that they know the rationale behind how their learning
is being facilitated. This preamble aids the students’ receptivity to the method, as they understand the
potential benefits of it and accept that there may be times when they are uncertain about what certain
sessions are about. If too much pre briefing (termed ‘front loading’ by Priest 1995) is done, the students are
no longer directed by their attitudes, values and factor i (see figure 1), and consequently act out attitudes
and behaviours that they think the tutor is wanting to see. The high impact part of experiential education is
in the reflection time when students describe and analyse their responses and are encouraged to think
metacognitively and critically around these.
The experiential cycle that the EAPBM is based on is Kolb’s (1984) model below.
Concrete experience
Experiential
learning
cycle
Active experimentation
Reflective Observation
Abstract conceptualisation
After Kolb 1984
Figure 2.2.1 Experiential Learning Cycle
Over the years of working with this model, I have found that students can apply it more easily to their
teaching and learning, if it is simplified. This is done by using simple words, as cues to the more
complex terminology. As in the rainbow model, colour and shapes have also been used to aid
memory, and thus make the model more useful to students in the field and in teaching situations.
Figure 2.2.2 shows the simplified model. The process starts with the experience, called concrete
experience in Kolb’s (1984) model. The word review is used for the reflection phase and then apply
(to the next activity) is used for the active experimentation.
Additions that have been made to the model to put it in context for the use of the adventure based
learning and problem solving activities of the POEM are shown in figure 2.2,3. Students are directed
to a clear start to the process as this is what they expect early on in the course. They are usually given
a brief and encouraged to plan. If they are using the method in teaching others, they are expected to
have a detailed plan including a clear brief at the start. After the experience (do/ see / hear/ feel
something) phase of the process, we encourage some sort of acknowledgement of it and this is called
celebrate on the simplified model. However, it is acknowledged that not all experiences warrant a
celebration, and indeed in some cases it may not be appropriate. This leads on to the review phase
and this has come from Greenaway’s (1993) use of the word with his 4 E’s model, adapted recently to
4 F’s (see figure 5 and section 2.2). This model is similar to others described earlier (Smyth, 1989;
Rohnke; 1984) but it has the additional stage, which allows for the expression of emotions after the
recapping and recounting (describe phase) of the experience. This is because the emotions are a key
factor in the learning and reflection process. The role of the emotions in learning is discussed in
section 3.4.9. Greenaway’s model then has an analysis (examine / findings) stage before addressing
the changes that can be made (explore / futures).
After this reflection phase, Kolb’ s (1984) model moves to active experimentation. This is simplified
to ‘apply to next activity’ in the POEM because students are encouraged to take their learning from
one activity directly on to the next activity, or even to the next session. We have added the word
‘transfer’ in here to refer to a further learning step in which students take their learning for the
activities in to other areas of their life. This is where the shift into deeper, more values based, praxis
based learning can happen, resulting in a change in attitudes and behaviour. A progression of the
Kolb’s cycle is the idea of a spiral, with each circuit generating learning at a higher level.
Figure 2.2.3 Simplified Experiential model (with colour and shape for memory aid)
DO
(experience)
REVIEW
(reflect and
compare)
APPLY to next
activity
Construct an
UNDERSTANDING
Figure 2.2.4 Simplified Experiential model (with overlay of additions)
plan
start
brief
DO
(experience)
transfer to other
aspects of life
celebrate
or
REVIEW
(reflect and
compare)
APPLY to next
activity
use
Construct an
UNDERSTANDING
2.3
Reflection models
4 E’s
next page
There are an abundance of reflection models, which are used to reflect on all forms of outdoor and
experiential education activities. A common pattern of processing guidelines usually starts with a
description, followed by an analysis and then finishing with a look into changes that can be made.
The Project Adventure “ What, So What, Now what?” (Rohnke , 1984) follows this pattern.
Smyth’s (1989) model uses similar terms with describe, inform/confront, strategies and future.
However, these models along with a great many others do not make a place for the expression of
the emotions in reflection. More depth is written on the importance of the emotions in learning and
reflection in section 3.4.9.
Greenaway created a model and published it in 1993 in his book Playback: a guide to reviewing
activities and adapted it more recently on the website http://www.reviewing.co.uk. This model
followed similar principles to the ones described above but it also included a stage of reflection
early in its sequence, which allowed for the expression of the emotions experienced. Greenaway’s
model has been adapted and coloured for memory aid and is shown below.
Figure 2.3.1 Greenaway’s reflection model ( adapted).
experience
This allows learners to recap on the experience and to
make sure that all perspectives are heard.
facts
express
feelings
examine
This encourages learners to express and reflect on the
emotions they experienced during the activity, so that all
perspectives are heard.
This is the phase, which allows for analysis of the activity.
It is present in most reflection models.
findings
explore
futures
This is the final stage, which looks into new possibilities
2.4 Group dynamics models
The group are taken through a series of stages of group cohesion. This is important because running
activities for groups that are not ready for them can limit the learning experience. Tuckman and
Jensen (cited in Miles & Preist date) developed a model, which has been adapted by many educators
and referred to in numerous adventure education texts. ( Frank, 2001; Rohnke, 1984). This model is
introduced to the students at a certain stage in their course and compared to how their own group is
developing as a community. The model is shown in figure 2.4 using colour and shape to aid
memory.
Figure 2.4 Stages of group development ( after Tuckman and Jensen)
Phase of a group coming together. Some common
forming
interest.
Phase of a individuals finding their place in a group.
storming
norming
performing
transforming
adjourning
Phase of group roles and norms being established.
Storming and Norming can happen several times
over.
Phase of a group building a community, synergy,
and working positively together.
Stage of a group becoming a community of practice
and making a difference. The group applies their
learning outside of the course context.
Courses always end and some groups adjourn.
Some groups continue on as an active community.
2.4.1 Encouraging positive group dynamics
The key to enabling a group’s learning through these activities is in the hands of the facilitator. Part of
this successful facilitation lies in the sequencing and flow of the activities and the readiness of the group
to engage in certain learning frameworks. Some key methods are detailed below.
2.4.2
Sequencing
Activities need to be given to the group in a sequence that allows them to make a progression through the
learning experiences. The more basic activities (working in the red orange and yellow areas of the
rainbow model in figure 2.1) are used early in the sequence and the activities become deeper and more
complex as the group makes progress. The activities designed to encourage deeper and values based
learning are conducted towards the end of the sequence. This sequence helps learners lay down
foundational principles before being asked to question them. Then they have some knowledge to question.
Schunk (2000, p. 21) emphasises the importance of this as, “Sequencing of material, for example, affects
learners’ cognitive organizations and development of memory structures.” Project Adventure have used a
popular sequence for many years. This takes the group through cooperation activities first, then moves on
to trust, before running problem solving activities and finally moving to challenge activities (Frank, 2001
p.22). The POEM has based its sequencing on these tried and tested practices, but has made a few
changes to accommodate the use of the activities for more values based learning in accordance with the
principles of critical pedagogy. It has also recognised that trust is an on going process and it is tested
further with each stage of the groups’ development. So different levels of trust are built as the group
makes progress towards becoming a true learning community.
Again the sequence is shown in a diagram that uses colour and shape to aid memory and free more of the
brain up for making connections. See over page.
Figure 2.4.1 Sequencing for depths of thinking
cooperation
Problem
solving
values
based
sharing
decision
making
awareness
raising
contributing
goal setting
deep
learning
respecting
conflict
resolution
listening
metaphors
planning
innovation
real world
issues
supporting
praxis
integrating into
group think
becoming a
community
action on
issues
towards
critical beings
compassion
critical
pedagogy
TRUST
awareness of trust….physical trust….emotional trust….values respect and trust…unconditional trust
2.5
Flexible Situational Facilitation
Group readiness is a term referred to often by facilitators. It is about the group’s thinking and behaviour
patterns at the time of commencing an activity. The group needs to be ready to do the activity in the
sequence. Schoel, Prouty and Radcliffe (1998) use a check list with the mnemonic GRABBS. This is
shown in brief in figure 2.5 but the full list can be see in Frank (2000, p. 18).
Figure 2.5
G
Goals: concrete or flexible?
R
Readiness: of the group to do the activity
A
Affect: feelings of the group
B
Behaviour:
B
Body: tired or not?
S
Stage: in group development.
The POEM uses these principles to ensure that a relevant activity is run at the right depth of thinking, and
at the right time. An advantage of the activities is that they can all be adapted to suit the needs of a
particular group at any given time. Also activities can be re run using more challenging guidelines to
encourage further learning. Many of the deeper, values based activities, which are present in the critical
pedagogy levels of this scheme, are run at an easier level first so that students understand the mechanics
of the activity and have got through any debating that needs to be done around simple logistics.
The POEM uses the rainbow model as an indicator for what level of activity to use when in the sequence.
For example the first activities are about gaining information, understanding the concepts of team work,
and utilising the skills needed for positive group functioning. The next level of activities are awareness
raisers and these are used once the group is in a norming phase. These are followed by the deeper
attitude shifting and values revealing activities, which are used when the group is at a stage in which
personal opinions can be disclosed.
The activities that are aimed at stimulating some critical thinking are framed with a metaphor. A
metaphor is a story that is put alongside the activity to help the students relate it more to the real world.
The example shared later in this projects uses a keyboard metaphor for the organisational level of the
activity, and then changes the letters on the keyboard to headlines of global issue to prompt the critical
thinking.
3. Underpinning Educational Theories
Experiential Education
This movement sprung out of the work of Dewey in the 1930’s. Its underlying tenets are that people
must be involved in experiences to learn. This is enhanced when supported by reflection and action to
further the learning. This was formalised by Kolb in 1984 and his model is discussed in detail in
section 2.2
Constructuvism
This branch of educational thinking grew out of the work of Vygotsky in the 1930’s. It was only
translated into English in the 1960’s and has since been taken up by the education community at
large. It is based on the principles that people construct their own knowledge based on their
experiences and their interactions with other people. It has clear over laps with experiential theories
and more recent writings (Hendry, 1996) have discussed them together.
Socio- cultural theories
These have become part of mainstream education in the last decade. They emerged from an
extension to constructivism called social constructivism. They are based on the principles that people
learn from being immersed in a culture and they acknowledge all the little influences on the persons
learning. Socio-cultural practices also have close links with experiential education. A more recent
development has been given the term soci ecological learning theories. These are socio cultural in
nature, but also use a metaphor of an ecological system to explain all the intricate and complex
factors, which effect learning (Davis, Sumara & Luce- Kapler, 2008). They also take into account the
society and ecology that the learner is immersed in and emphasise the importance of learning
communities. According to Boyes (2000), such theories are congruent with practices in Outdoor
Education.
Applications of Neuroscience
Another recent development that has happened alongside educational developments, is research into
neuroscience and how the brain functions. This research has still not been utilised to the full by the
educational community, but I can see a strong case for its inclusion into educational theory in the
future. When educators understand the physiology behind someone’s learning, it can help them to
facilitate the learning to make a higher impact. The POEM relates the use of all of the models,
principles and theories already described here, to the brain theory that supports it. This is too big a
topic to discuss in detail here but the following information about brain structure and function will
give a brief back ground. Readers are referred to Hannaford (1995) for further information.
Brain structure and function
The brain has three main parts, two hemispheres and 4 filters for incoming information. These
are all linked together with nerve networks and the functioning of the brain and body can be seen
to underpin much of our learning. This is supported by the view of Functionalists (influenced by
Darwin) ,who “saw the mind and body as interacting rather than existing separately.” (cited in
Schunk 2000). Below is a simple explanation but readers are referred to Hannaford (1995) for
details.
The brain stem: Instincts
The brain stem is in the centre of the brain at the top of the spinal cord and it is sometimes
referred to as the reptilian brain because it controls our most basic instinctive responses. It is the
filter through which all of our incoming information goes before being passed on to the rest of the
brain and the main function it has is to keep us safe. In the context of the POEM all participants
must feel physically and emotionally safe, otherwise their brain stem would override the learning
with protective actions. The typical fight or flight response (Cannon, 1932) comes from this part
of the brain. There is a current debate around the "Tend and Befriend" mechanism (Taylor et al.,
2000; McCarthy, 2009) that is said to be present in the female response to stress instead of the
fight or flight mechanism. This is based on the evolution of the female as the one giving birth,
lactating and protecting the young. She is less able to fight or run away and therefore shows the
mechanism of tending for the young and befriending other females in times of stress. There is a
continuum of male-female brain characteristics and the behaviours that these produce are varied.
The POEM allows for the range of responses and accepts diversity, but considers the physical and
emotional safety of the participants with care.
The mid brain: emotions
This surrounds the brain stem and it is also known as the limbic system. This area controls our
emotions and motivations and it connects the “instinctive” and “rational” regions of the brain. It
is the 2nd filter for incoming information. If our emotions are engaged in the activity, we are more
likely to experience deep learning. If emotions are negative, it is likely that they will hinder
learning. The POEM uses emotional engagement as a tool for enhancing learning and care needs
to be taken to ensure the negative emotional blocks are minimised.
The cortex: thinking
This part covers the mid brain and is the thinking part of the brain, which controls, amongst other
things, our language and rational responses to external stimuli. The back part is called the
hippocampus and this is believed to be where long term memories are stored. This acts as the
third filter and is where incoming information is compared to prior experience. The thinking
cortex is around the front of the brain. This is the fourth filter, which allows us to rationalise and
make decisions around the incoming information. When we do this, our brains learn and mature.
The POEM allows for all filters to be functioning positively, so that thinking is at the higher level.
Deeper in behind the temples is the place where intuition functions. Our new experiences are
compared subconsciously to old ones and if this part is working hard, we experience a stimulation
of the visceral nerve and we get a ‘ gut feeling”. The motor cortex is around the centre, from ear
to ear on the outside. All parts of the cortex are linked through intricate wiring networks. The
POEM is designed to stimulate all areas of the brain, including the emotions, with the aim of
engendering a more complex wiring response and deeper learning.
Brain Hemispheres
The brain is divided into two hemispheres known as the logic and gestalt hemispheres. The logic
hemisphere is usually on the left and deals with logical matters such as language and numbers
and the gestalt hemisphere is usually on the right and deals with creative thought such as music
and art. The left hemisphere deals with information in areas. For example, the speech area is one
part of the left hemisphere located somewhere between behind the eyes and the motor cortex.
(note people who have a stroke in this area, lose their ability to speak, but they can still sing.) The
right hemisphere is wired simultaneously. That means it tends to process things all over the brain.
The POEM caters for all thinking styles and is especially relevant to the gestalt dominant creative
thinkers.
Nerve Nets
The whole brain is connected by nerves cells. These are known as neurones, and they are the
main communication lines. How our brain is wired is a key factor determining our perceptions,
attitudes and behaviours. In the words of Michael Merzenich (cited in Hannaford 1995);“ When
ever we engage in new behaviour, the brain remodels itself.” The corpus callosum is the nerve
network that joins the two halves of the brain. This helps right and left hemispheres work
together. Women have 10% more nerve fibres with thicker myelin coats that cross the corpus
callosum. This possibly explains women’s ability to “multitask” or is a result of the
“multitasking” that women do as they fulfil multiple roles in life. Myelin is the substance that
coats the nerves and the thicker this is, the more preference there is for a message to take that
pathway. Physical activity is believed to enhance the laying down of myelin. The POEM
involves physical activity and therefore supports this process.
Brain development stage
By age 18, social maturation is complete, but risk taking continues. There are noticeable
improvements in being able to reason and think critically during the stage 18-25. This supports
the relevance of the POEM with tertiary students.
Movement
Research has shown that movement enhances the creation of nerve networks and the myelin
coating of nerve fibres. Movement is essential to learning. Coordinated muscular activities
produce neurotrophins that stimulate growth in nerve cells. The POEM uses movement in its
methods. Movement anchors thought through acts such as speaking, writing, acting, reviewing
etc. It is very difficult to learn anything without a corresponding movement even if that
movement is just the act of writing. Hannaford highlights this when she states; “meaningful
learning for the learner is not complete until there is some physical output.” (Hannaford, 2001, p.
87.) The POEM uses movement and language to cause learners to interact with each other.
Experience
Experience is a crucial factor in brain wiring. People’s brains are wired as a result of their
experiences. This fact has emerged from neural physiology studies and it supports many
educational and psychological theories, which were constructed from observations long before
neural physiologists could physically look into the brain. The POEM is usually based on
experiences. The findings about the importance of experience in brain wiring support the use of
the experiential learning cycle and the whole notion of experiential learning.
Emotions
It is believed that learning is more meaningful and more permanent when the emotions have been
involved in the learning process. This is possibly because when emotions are engaged, more brain
cell networks are activated and more linkages are made. Domasio ( cited in Hannaford, 1995) did
some experiments and comparisons between brain damaged patients and normal people with card
games. He found that when the emotions were disconnected (as in the brain damaged patients)
learning was absent. Hannaford (1995) sums up the role of all of the above structures;
“The intricate wiring of the limbic system (in the brain) shows that in order
to learn and remember something, there must be a sensory input, a personal
emotional connection and movement. As we experience the world, the collage
of images and our responding actions are all run through an emotional filter in
the limbic system that determines the value, meaning and survival potential of
the experience in the light of past experience. Socially, everything we do
stems from our need to be accepted within our group so we may survive.
Emotions interpret our experience and help us to organise our view of the
world and our place in it.” (2001) p. 54.
The POEM gives students them a space in which to feel and express emotions.
3.4.10
Emotional Intelligence.
Encouragement and acceptance of rich emotional development are essential to our lives as
individuals and as a society” Hannaford:
“All of our emotional/cognitive processing appears to be biochemical. How we
feel about a situation triggers specific neuro transmitters. Objectively speaking, to
the mind/body every experience is simply an event. The way we choose to
perceive that event, coloured by our emotions, determines our response to it and
our potential learning from it.” (2001) p. 54.
Outdoor education is a strong vehicle for developing emotional intelligence (as defined by
Goleman, 1996). Hannaford elaborates that if we perceive the event as a disaster, the neuro
transmitter adrenaline is released and the mind/body responds with a series of survival orientated
reactions. With the increased adrenaline, we also produce the neuro transmitter substance cortisol,
which decreases our ability to learn and remember. If instead we choose to perceive the event as a
learning experience, an adventure, other neuro transmitters like GBBA, acetylcholine, interferon
and interleukins are released. These increase our ability to establish or reorganise neural networks
so we may effectively think and remember. This highlights the importance of reflection and
reviewing of POEM activities, whether they were successful or ended up in difficulties.
3.4.11 Reflection
The reviewing part of the experiential learning cycle gives the brain a chance to myelinate newly
connected nerve fibre pathways that have been formed due to new learning. Active reviewing (for
example in the style promoted by Greenaway (1993) will have a high impact on this myelination
process. Reflection sessions are an integral part of good practice in POEM. They are called
reflections, debriefs, reviewing etc. This is one of the key skills of an outdoor educator. Outdoor
educators need to be aware of over debriefing.
3.4.12 Memory
Much of our memory seems to be stored in the hippocampus at the back of the brain. We have a
capacity to emotionally mark and remember experiences. This is done as the emotions add an
element of pleasure or pain. This is important for survival of society. Therefore we learn the rules
of society and allow it to function. This links to Gilberts (2005) notion, of education being a
factor in social cohesion. Indigenous societies used outdoor related experiences as part of
encouraging social cohesion. eg rites of passage. Winston (2004, p. 277) writes on the
importance of episodic memories in values formation and behaviour change. The POEM aims to
set up situations which are memorable and thus encourage deeper learning.
3.4.13 Metacognition
“Subtle invisible transactions among sensory /emotional/ motor areas of the brain allow us to
create meaning from our experience” Hannaford (1995) p. 70. We construct our own knowledge
and our own story about what happened according to our perception of an event. We add meaning
to most experiences and what we add may change over time and on reflection. The POEM
activities, when are reviewed with skill, allow a group to use these metacognition skills to be able
to see themselves from outside and see how we do add meaning to experiences.
3.4.14 Learning preferences
Research on learning styles has shown that most junior school children and large numbers of
primary and secondary school and tertiary students are kinaesthetic learners, meaning that they
learn best when they are moving (Prashnig, 1995). This tendency does not change to auditory
learning preferences in many tertiary students. The POEM addresses the need to cater for a large
number of kinaesthetic learners.
In summary, Hannaford (1995) believes that meaningful learning can only happen if there is
movement, experience and emotional engagement. These are the most important factors in the
whole success of the POEM. Institutes and schools would benefit from considering these three
factors in their planning for student learning.
Find more details on this in
http://edem601.wetpaint.com/page/brain+science+and+Outdoor+Education