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UNIVERSIDAD DE LAS AMERICAS, PUEBLA
GRAMMAR BOOKLET
CONNECTORS
OFFERED BY THE LANGUAGE DEPARMENT OF THE UNVIERSIDAD DE LAS
AMERICAS, PUEBLA TO HELP ITS STUDENTS WHO HAVE PROBLEMS WITH
THE MASTERY OF SPECIAL LINGUISTICS STRUCTURES IN ENGLISH.
PREPARED BY CONNIE RAE JOHNSON
CONNECTORS
PRESENT: Look at the following sentences and decide if they are correct or not. If the
sentence is correct, type “yes”; if it not correct, type “No”.
1. Therefore, there was a heavy snow storm, all the classes were canceled.
2. Although he could not attend.
3. We will have a picnic if it doesn’t rain.
4. Owing to my teacher helped me, I passed math.
5. In spite of the delay, we finished on time.
6. The children didn’t arrive on time; however, they wore red dresses.
7. While his breathing was becoming more rapid.
8. After he goes to the cafeteria.
9. In order to my father pays my studies.
10. Because people are afraid, the weather is beautiful today.
Connectors, which are sometimes referred to as connectors or conjunctions, are the
principal method that writers use to connect ideas while writing. They are very important
to understand while reading, as well as to use correctly when writing. However, English
students tend to have a lot of difficulty in using them correctly and for this reason this
booklet was created. The information contained here will concentrate in two major
problem areas of connectors: their function in a sentence and their grammatical usage in a
sentence.
A. Function of Connectors in a Sentence.
Connectors can usually be placed in one of the following categories:
1. Additional Information.
2. Cause and Effect.
3. Comparison – Contrast
We said “usually” because there are other function categories but the majority of
connectors will fit into at least one of the above. Now each will be explained.
1. Additional Information: Whenever a writer wants to add more information to an
idea that was already mentioned, list, organize and classify new information or
wishes to show examples to further explain an idea, an additional information
connective will probably be used. Look at the following examples of sentences
using this type of connective.
EXAMPLES:
The politician spoke to a large crowd of people in Austin on Thursday;
furthermore, he attended a dinner in his honor in Dallas on the same day.
The politician spoke to a large crowd of people in Austin. In addition, he
attended a dinner in his honor in Dallas.
Besides speaking to a large crowd in Austin, the politician attended a dinner in Dallas.
The politician had a busy week; for example, on Thursday he spoke to a large
crowd in Austin and attended a dinner in Dallas.
If you noticed the connectors were used grammatically different in each sentence but the
same information was provided. All of the sentences containing connectors were
supplying additional information connectors.
Check your connective list or a dictionary for meanings.
Furthermore
In addition
Besides
For example
Such as
Whence
Moreover
What is more
Also
As follows
2. Cause and Effect.
Cause and effect relationships are another logical way a writer has of organizing his
ideas. This type of relationship is closely related to chronological order because the
“effect” follows the “cause” in time, but remember that not every chronological sequence
is an example of cause and effect connectors used in sentences. Look at them carefully.
Notice that in the last sentence, the effect comes before the cause.
EXAMPLES:
There was a heavy snowstorm; thus, the roads were closed.
There was a heavy snowstorm, and as a result the roads were closed.
Because of the heavy snowstorm, the roads were closed.
The roads were closed due to a heavy snowstorm.
As you saw in the examples of both cause and effect and additional information
there are different ways of organizing the same information and different ways of using
connectors. Here is a list of commonly used case and effect connectors. Check your
connective list or a dictionary for meanings.
Thus
And as a result
Because of
Due to
Owing to
As a result of
Since
Hence
Therefore
Consequently
For this reason
Accordingly
In order to
Resulting in
Because
EXERCISE 1. - In the following exercise there are two sentences given. If the
sentences need an additional information connector to join them correctly type “all”. If
the sentences function as cause and effect, or effect – cause, type “CE”.
1. They had a new baby
Their life – style changed.
2. Susan has a vitamin deficiency.
Susan’s physical health is not good.
3. It is important for young children to see new things.
It is good to take young children a ranch.
4. They own a large house in the city.
They have a 200 acre ranch in Veracruz.
5. We have had many problems with your products.
We have contracted another supplier.
6. We ordered the new equipment last week.
It should arrive soon.
7. Our new farm is beautiful.
Near the house is a lake and a group of walnut trees.
8. Ms. Thompson has worked in the sales department before.
She is the best choice to work there again.
9. English has many verb tenses.
There is present, present continuous, past, future, etc.
10. I needed money.
I took a job in a supermarket.
3. Comparison and Contrast. - These two styles are listed together but in order to
understand them you must study them separately because they are used differently.
“Comparison” means you will see how they are different. So you see, Comparison
and contrast are opposites and must use different connectors. Following are two lists
of connectors, one for each function.
Check your connective list or a dictionary for meanings.
COMPARISON
CONTRAST
Similar to
Similarity
The similarity
Between
The same
Likewise
Alike
As
In comparison
In both
Just as
Correspond to
Correspondingly
Resemble
However
Nevertheless
But
Alternatively
In contrast
Instead of
On the contrary
On the other hand
Although
Whereas
While
Meanwhile
Otherwise
Despite
Differ from
Dissimilarity
Unlike
By comparing and contrasting ideas, an author can clearly organize extensive data and
information in order to make the material easily understood by a reader.
A reader by recognizing a connector and thus its function can immediately find the
logical relationship between ideas.
The following examples should make clear to you the functions of comparison and
contrast. The first will be “comparison” and second will be “contrast”.
EXAMPLES:
1. American football and soccer both use a ball.
2. An American football is oval whereas a soccer ball is round.
3. In price, a Mercedes is similar to a BMW
4. However, a Mercedes is considered mechanically better than BMW.
5. José López Portillo and Miguel de la Madrid were both Mexican presidents.
6. The dissimilarity is that Portillo is much taller than De la Madrid.
EXERCISE 2. – The following sentences contain two ideas. If the ideas need a
comparison connector, type “comparison”. If they need a contrast connector, type
“contrast”.
1. Food production is important.
Food preservation is important.
2. She has had many problems with her health this year.
She went on a tour of Europe.
3. Under normal conditions, he can read one hundred pages in an hour.
During the last hour, he has read twenty pages.
4. The queen of England doesn’t wear a crown.
The king of Denmark doesn’t wear a crown.
5. Glass is hard and brittle.
Paper is smooth and flammable.
6. Lead is very useful in a pencil.
Lead can be dangerous if it is in contact with your blood.
7. There is a gothic style church in Paris.
There are many gothic buildings in Rome.
8. Steel requires little maintenance.
Steel is expensive.
9. Diamonds are beautiful.
They are used for making jewelry.
10. Today the weather is good.
Yesterday the weather was horrible.
B. Grammatical usage of connectors
Knowing to which function a connective belongs does not mean that you can use them
correctly in writing. For this reason, you should understand the following categories for
their correct grammatical usage. For the sake of simplicity, we shall give each a number:
I, II and III.
TYPE I
This type of grammatical usage of connectors means that the connector joins two
independent clauses. An independent clause is the same as a complete sentence because
they both have a subject, a verb and express a complete idea.
The type I connective joins the independent clauses in two ways.
EXAMPLE:
First independent clause
semicolon
second independent clause
1. The weather was beautiful yesterday; however, it is bad today.
2. The weather was beautiful yesterday. However, it is bad today.
Please notice the differences and similarities of the two examples. Note that in the
first example the connective “however”, begins with a small letter whereas in the second
example it begins with a capital letter. Another important punctuation is comma which
must follow the connective in both examples. Both ways of writing sentences with type I
connectors are correct, but remember not to mix the two constructions.
A type I connective can come from any of the functions that you studied.
That is to say, it may be in an Additional Information Connective, a Cause and
Effect connective or a Comparison-Contrast connective. Following is a list of connectors
by function that must be used grammatically as Type I.
Add. Inf.
Also
Moreover
Meanwhile
Furthermore
Besides
For example
Cause-Effect
Consequently
Hence
Thus
Therefore
It follows that
Comparison-Contrast
However
Nevertheless
Nonetheless
Meanwhile
On the other hand
Otherwise
There can be other connectors for type I that are not listed here. If you have a question
about one, ask your teacher.
TYPE II
A type II connector is one which joins an independent clause with a dependent
clause. In the explanation of a type I connector, you learned that an independent clause
has a subject, a verb and can exist as a complete sentence. A dependent clause also has a
subject and verb but it cannot stand alone as a sentence because it does not express a
complete thought or idea as does an independent clause. A dependent clause can only be
part of a sentence and needs to accompany an independent clause in a sentence.
Look at the following examples.
Dependent clause
independent clause
1. Although he finished the exam before anyone else, he failed the test.
2. He failed the test although he finished the exam before anyone else.
As you can see the dependent clause has a subject “he” and a verb “finished”. It
also has a connector “although” which prevents this clause from being a complete
sentence. The dependent clause does not make sense alone; it needs the independent
clause in order to complete the thought or idea.
All type II connectors function this way. They always come before the dependent
clause and connect the dependent idea to the independent one.
If you noticed, the dependent clause may come before the complete sentence or
after it. If it comes before, a comma separates the dependent from the independent clause.
In other words, immediately following the last word of the dependent clause the comma
is placed (see the first example). However, if the independent sentence comes first
followed by the dependant clause, there is NO comma (see the second example).
Following is a list of type II connectors by function.
Added Information
Whence (from where)
Wherein (in which)
Whereby (by Which)
Wherewith (with which)
Wherefore (for which)
Cause and Effect
Since
Unless
Until
Because
Comparison-Contrast
Whereas
While
Although
Even though
Though
There can be other connectors for type I that are not listed here. If you have a
question about one, ask your teacher.
EXERCISE 3. – In the following exercise four possible connectors are listed.
Choose the correct connective to put the blank based on the function (AI, CE or CC) as
well as the grammatical usage (Type I and II). Pay close attention to the punctuation in
the sentence.
1. (Whence, Although, Nevertheless, Meanwhile)
___________ he was a well known poet, he never had any money.
2. (Therefore, however, whereas, because)
I don’t like this report I wrote; ________, I’m going to rewrite it.
3. (unless, while, consequently, furthermore)
All soviets students are placed into scholastic groups. __________, only one of
every five is admitted to a university.
4. (however, moreover, because, while)
My father often goes to Washington; ________, he stays at the Ritz Hotel.
5. (however, moreover, because, while)
He stays at Ritz Hotel________ it is clean and expensive.
6. (Consequently, Nonetheless, Until, Though)
The rain is scheduled to leave at 5:00 o’clock.________, it is frequently late.
7. (for example, it follows that, since, whence)
____________bicycles provide quick reliable transportation over short distances,
they are considered functional.
8. (whence, unless, thus, otherwise)
There is a train station near my house _______trains leave every five minutes to
New York City.
9. (although, because, on the other hand, therefore)
Alex and Martin have not completed the projects for chemistry class. _________,
they both expect to get good grades.
10. (unless, even though, hence, otherwise)
___________computers are faster and more accurate than humans, they can’t
think.
TYPE III
A type III connective joins a phrase to an independent clause. A phrase is different
from a clause because a clause has a subject and verb expressed within it; however, a
phrase does not. There are two kinds of phrases that can be used with connectors: noun /
gerund phrases and infinitive phrases.
Since there are only six connectors that can be used in this type III phrases, each class
of phrase will be discussed giving examples of their use.
NOUN / GERUND PHRASE
As mentioned before a phrase is a group of words that does not contain both a subject
(noun) and a verb as did dependent and independent clauses. Some phrases contains
verbs with no nouns (infinitive phrase) and others contain nouns with no verbs (noun or
gerund phrases).
Following is a list by functions of noun / gerund connectors.
Additional Information
Besides
Such as
Cause and Effect
Because of
Owing to
Due to
Comparison-Contrast
Instead of
Despite
In spite of
What do we mean noun / gerund phrases? They are phrases that contain no verbs. The
verb comes in the independent clause of the sentence. In noun / gerund phrases the
connector is followed by only nouns or gerunds. A noun is a word that names a person,
place, thing or idea. In Spanish it is a “sustantivo”.
EXAMPLES:
English is important. (Noun as a subject)
I like English. (Noun as direct object)
A gerund is a noun that has been formed from a verb by placing “ing” at the end of
the verb and using it as a noun. In Spanish it is a “gerundio”.
Studying is important (Gerund as a subject)
He likes studying. (Gerund as a direct object)
Now that you understand what is meant by the words “noun” and “gerund” look at
the following examples using each of the noun / gerund phrase connectors in sentences.
Be careful to note how each is used grammatically in the sentence and its punctuation.
EXAMPLES: NP = noun phrase
GP = gerund phrase
1.a. (NP) Besides chemistry, he also likes math.
b. (GP) Besides cooking, she also likes to sew.
The connective “besides” begins either a noun phrase or a gerund phrase. It can only
be placed before the independent clause. A comma is found between the phrase and the
clause.
2.a (NP) Because of / Due to / Owing to the snowstorm, all the classes were canceled.
(NP) All the classes were cancelled Because of / Due to / Owing to the snow
storm.
b.(GP) Because of / Due to / Owing to failing, she had to leave the university.
(GP) She had to leave the university Because of / Due to / Owing to failing.
Since the three connectors all mean the same (debido a) they have been put together
in the example. Please notice that they may come either before independent clause or
after it. If they follow the clause there is no comma needed.
3.a. (NP) Instead of steak, she wanted vegetables.
(NP) She wanted vegetables instead of steak.
b.(GP) Instead of leaving she decided to stay.
(GP) She decided to stay instead of leaving.
The connective “instead of” may be used with either a noun or a gerund phrase and
may be placed either before or after the independent clause. As said before, if it comes
before the clause, it must be followed by a comma.
4.a.(NP) Despite / In spite of the fact that he studied all night, he failed the test.
(NP) He failed the test Despite / In spite of the fact that he studied all night.
b.(GP) Despite / In spite of studying all night, he failed the test.
(GP) She decided to stay instead of leaving.
Since the two connectors “despite” and “in spite of” mean the same (a pesar de) and
are used the same grammatically, they have been used together in the example. But can
come either before or after the independent clause (notice the position of the comma) and
can be used either with a noun or a gerund phrase. Please pay close attention to their use
with a noun phrase where “the fact that” must be included.
5.a. (NP) There are many races of dogs such as cockers, Dobermans, poodles,
shepards, etc.
b. (GP) There are many sporting events in Olympic Games such as swimming,
running, skiing, etc
The connective “such as” is the most restrictive in its usage. It can only follow the
independent clause even though it is found either a noun phrase or a gerund phrase.
INFINITIVE PHRASE
The other kind of type III phrase is the infinitive phrase. For our purposes, an
infinitive phrase begins with the connective “in order to” and is followed by a verb in the
infinitive. The infinitive may be followed by a noun, adjective or adverb, but it is still
considered a phrase because there is no expressed subject nor verb in its correct tense
present and does not express a complete idea as does an independent clause.
EXAMPLE:
In order to arrive on time, I had to get up early.
I had to get up early in order to arrive on time.
The function of the connector “in order to” is to express the cause and effect. It may
come either before or after the independent clause which shows the cause of the sentence.
Notice the position of comma in the first sentence and the absence of comma in the last.
If you have any questions about the three types of connectors you should ask your
teacher.
EXERCISE 4.- in the following exercise, you must choose from four connectors the
correct one to fill the blank. There will be connectors of Types I, II, II so you must
remember all the rules taught on this diskette.
1. (moreover, until, whence, besides)
He stayed in Europe ____________ all his money was gone.
2. (consequently, nonetheless, although, in order to)
In recent years scientists have developed many techniques in genetic engineering;
___________ the most important is gene splicing.
3. (furthermore, because, whereas, despite)
_______________ the fact that they were poor, they were always clean and well
dressed.
4. (therefore, because, whereas, due to)
Coca Cola is made with sugar ________ Tab is not.
5. furthermore, thus, since, in order to)
You must have a visa____________ visit the United States.
6. (meanwhile, hence, even though, unless)
Manganese steel is very hard. _________, it is used to make armour plate.
7. (for example, it follows that, although, in spite of)
He enjoys trips with the ski club _________he cannot ski well.
8. (otherwise, consequently, because, besides)
Mary likes shrimp “al mojo de ajo” ; _________she wont eat sea food
9. (meanwhile, however, whereat, since)
________________he didn’t attend the lecture on the solar system, he couldn’t
answer the professor question.
10. (besides, thus, while, owing to)
All the players on soccer team have years of experience.________, they are eager
and enthusiastic.
EXERCISE 5. - In the following exercise you must choose from four connectors the
correct one to fill the blank. There will be connectors of types I, II, III so you must
remember all the rules taught in this booklet.
1. (for example, nevertheless, whence, though)
In the first stroke of the internal combustion engine, the inlet valve opens
__________ the fuel enters.
2. (consequently, on the other hand, unless , while)
A typical rider on a subway always complains that the service is bad _________
the amount he has to pay increases.
3. (therefore, otherwise, because, instead of)
Russia has one of the world’s worst retail trade systems; __________, the citizens
complain they have money but nothing to buy.
4. (moreover, however, because of, even though)
_____________ only a decade has passed since General Motors began buying
robots; today they have more than five thousand.
5. (hence, besides, because, whereas)
The flow of dirty water from a drainage system caused by gravity._________, it
can only flow downhill.
6. (furthermore, nonetheless, despite, due to)
The dirty water from a drainage system can only flow downhill ________ gravity.
7. (wherein, whereas, in spite of, until)
I was not hurt in the accident ___________ my car being destroyed.
8. (also, otherwise, in order to, despite)
The photographer went to the airport ____________ take a picture of the
president.
9. (however, whereat, because, besides)
The administration building is over 100 years old; ______________, people do
not want to tear it down because of its architecture.
10. (furthermore, thus, because, although)
___________ I know how to work a computer, I don’t know how to program it.
ANSWER KEY
Connectors
Pretest
1. No
2. No
3. Yes
4. No
5. Yes
6. No
7. No
8. No
9. No
10. No
Exercise 5
1. whence
2. while
3. therefore
4. even though
5. hence
6. due to
7. in spite of
8. in order to
9. however
10. although
Exercise 1
1. CE
2. CE
3. AI
4. AI
5. CE
6. CE
7. AI
8. CE
9. AI
10. CE
Exercise 2
1. comparison
2. contrast
3. contrast
4. comparison
5. contrast
6. contrast
7. comparison
8. contrast
9. comparison
10. contrast
Exercise 3
1. although
2. therefore
3. furthermore
4. moreover
5. because
6. nonetheless
7. since
8. whence
9. on the other hand
10. even though
Exercise 4
1. until
2. nonetheless
3. despite
4. whereas
5. in order to
6. hence
7. although
8. otherwise
9. since
10. besides
TYPE I CONNECTORS
Additional Information (AI)
Also
Moreover
Meanwhile
Furthermore
Besides
For example
Spanish
También
Además
Mientras tanto
Lo que es mas
Además
Por ejemplo
Cause and Effect (CE)
Consequently
Hence
Thus
Therefore
It follows that
Consecuentemente
De ahí que
Así, de esta manera, por eso, de ahí que
Por lo tanto
De ahí que
Comparison – Contrast (CC)
However
Nevertheless
Nonetheless
Meanwhile
On the other hand
Otherwise
Sin embargo
Sin embargo
Sin embargo
Mientras tanto
Por otro lado
De otra manera
TYPE II CONNECTORS
AI
Whence (from where)
Wherein (in which)
Whereby (by which)
Whereat (at which)
Wherefore (for which)
Desde donde
En donde
Por lo cual, por donde
Con lo cual
Por que, por tanto
The above list of AI connectors are not as commonly used now as they once were;
however, you should know their meaning, function and grammatical usage in case you
ever need to use them or find them written in a passage.
CE
Since
Unless
Until
Because
Puesto que
A menos que
Hasta, hasta que
Porque
CC
Whereas
While
Although
Even though
Though
Mientras que
Mientras, mientras que
Aunque
Aunque
Aunque
TYPE II CONNECTORS
AI
Besides
Such as
Además
Tales como
CE
Because of
Owing to
Due to
In order to
Debido a
Debido a
Debido a
Con el objeto de, con el propósito de
CC
Instead of
Despite
In spite of
En lugar de
A pesar de
A pesar de