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Chapter 6: Learning
Chapter Summary
I.
II.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING - Classical conditioning is a fundamental way that animals,
including humans, learn new responses. Classical conditioning involves learning reflexive,
involuntary responses to stimuli that don't normally cause such responses.
A.
Pavlov and Watson’s Contributions - Using Pavlov's classic research studies of salivation
in dogs, students are introduced to classical conditioning, where an initially neutral stimulus
that does not normally cause any particular reflex or emotional response is paired with
another stimulus that does cause such a response. After several pairings, this previously
neutral stimulus (NS) will cause the response to occur. Each stimulus and response is named
according to its cause or consequence. The neutral stimulus is paired with the unconditioned
stimulus (UCS), the stimulus that causes the reflex or emotional response. The reflex or
emotional response itself is known as the unconditioned response (UCR). When the neutral
stimulus begins to cause the response on its own; it is then referred to as the conditioned
stimulus (CS); the response caused by the conditioned stimulus is then referred to as the
conditioned response (CR). Watson demonstrated how the emotion of fear could be classical
conditioning. The story of Little Albert shows students how fears (and phobias) called
conditioned emotional responses (CERs) can be easily conditioned.
B.
Basic Principles - After introducing students to key concepts, the chapter enters into a
discussion of stimulus generalization, discrimination, extinction, and spontaneous recovery.
Generalization occurs when stimuli similar to the original CS elicits the CR; discrimination
occurs when only the CS elicits the CR. When the UCS is repeatedly withheld and the
previous association between the CS and the UCS is broken, extinction occurs. When a CR
that had been extinguished spontaneously reappears, it is known as spontaneous recovery.
Higher order conditioning, where a neutral stimulus is paired with a second conditioned
stimulus (CS) that already causes a learned or conditioned response, explains many emotions
and attitudes.
OPERANT CONDITIONING - A second type of conditioning, operant conditioning, (called
instrumental conditioning or Skinnerian conditioning) is based on the consequences of an
organism’s behavior. Behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement and diminished if
followed by punishment.
A.
Thorndike and Skinner’s Contributions - Operant conditioning was originally investigated
by Edward Thorndike and later by B. F. Skinner and occurs when people or animals learn by
the consequences of their responses. These consequences may consist of either reinforcement
or punishment.
B.
Basic Principles - Reinforcement is anything that is likely to cause and increase in the
response. Punishment is anything that is likely to cause a decrease in the response. Primary
reinforcers satisfy an unlearned biological need and secondary reinforcers have learned value.
Positive reinforcement occurs when something is added to increase the response rates.
Negative reinforcement, which is different from punishment, occurs when something is
removed in order to increase the response rate.
There are several kinds of schedules of reinforcement. Continuous schedules reinforce each
response. Partial schedules reinforce some, but not all responses. The major types of partial
reinforcement schedules are fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval.
Shaping is the process of teaching a person or an animal a complex task by reinforcing
successive approximations to a desired response.
There are also two kinds of punishment, positive and negative. Positive punishment occurs
when something is given to decrease the response rate. Negative punishment consists of
removing something to decrease the response rate. (It is helpful here to remind students to
think in mathematical terms – positive (add) and negative (take away). Punishment has
several serious side effects including increased aggression as well as learned helplessness.
In order to use reinforcement and punishment effectively, it is advisable to keep the following
tips in mind: (1) Feedback. Provide clear and immediate feedback when the person or animal
makes the desired response; (2) Timing. Apply reinforcers or punishers as soon as possible
after the response is made; (3) Consistency. Be consistent in applying both reinforcers and
punishers; and (4) Order of Presentation. Be sure to reinforce or punish after the behavior
has been exhibited.
As with classical conditioning, operant conditioning uses the following terms: stimulus
generalization, stimulus discrimination, extinction, and spontaneous recovery. Extinction
occurs when the reinforcement is withheld until the subject stops responding to the stimulus.
Spontaneous recovery occurs when a previously extinguished response spontaneously returns.
The difficulty in extinguishing a response is directly related to the schedule of reinforcement
being used to strengthen the response.
Critical Thinking/Active Learning: Using Learning Principles to Succeed in
College. The student is presented with an active learning activity and asked to
apply what they have learned about the principles of learning to their college
experience.
III. COGNITIVE–SOCIAL LEARNING - Mental processes that lead to learned behavior are
explored by the cognitive-social learning perspective.
A.
Insight and Latent Learning - Wolfgang Kohler, working with chimpanzees, demonstrated
that learning can occur with a sudden flash of insight and Edward Tolman demonstrated latent
learning occurs in the absence of reinforcement and remains hidden until it is needed.
B.
Observational Learning - Observational learning (or social learning) is the process of
learning how to do something by merely watching someone else perform a behavior, rather
than learning through doing. Observational learning theory was proposed by Albert Bandura
to explain how people learn by observing others who serve as models.
Gender and Cultural Diversity: Scaffolding as a Teaching Technique in
Different Cultures - This section discusses the work of Wood et al. (1976) where
scaffolding is used in informal situations between a master teacher and learner and
involves a combination of shaping and modeling.
IV. THE BIOLOGY OF LEARNING
V.
A.
Neuroscience and Learning – Research in learning suggests that new synaptic connections
and changes in the brain including the cortex, cerebellum, hypothalamus, thalamus, and
amygdala.
B.
Evolution and Learning – Biological preparedness innately predisposes an organism to form
associations between stimuli and responses. Taste aversion research is cited as an example of
an easily classically conditioned association. Instinctive drift occurs when a conditioned
response shift back toward innate response patterns.
USING CONDITIONING AND LEARNING PRINCIPLES
A.
Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Classical Conditioning - Advertisers, politicians,
film producers, music artists, and explanations of prejudice, phobias, and medical procedures
are all cited as examples of classical conditioning.
B.
Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Operant Conditioning – The influence of operant
conditioning principles have numerous real life applications. Often prejudice and
discrimination are positively reinforced. To control high blood pressure and anxiety, some
researchers use biofeedback—a procedure in which people's biological functions are
monitored and the results made known to them so they can learn to control these functions.
Professional athletes may exhibit superstitious behavior because of accidental reinforcement.
C.
Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Cognitive-Social Learning - In the 35 years since
Bandura’s original research, cognitive-social learning theory has been applied to contexts
such as explaining prejudice, the media influences on consumer choices, and aggressive
tendencies.