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Name:____________________________________ Date:_____________ Period:_____ Evolution Unit 12 – Overview Textbook – Chapters 15 Theory of Evolution (pg 296 – 315) 16 Population Genetics and Speciation (pg 316-335). Class Website – http://shsbio1.wikispaces.com Resources - http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/glossary/index.html http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0078695104/student_view0/ http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/evo101/index.shtml http://genetics.hannam.ac.kr/note/evolution.htm FEMS Microbiology Letters Volume 162 Issue 2 Page 325-330, May 1998 "In the broadest sense, evolution is merely change, and so is all-pervasive; galaxies, languages, and political systems all evolve. Biological evolution ... is change in the properties of populations of organisms that transcend the lifetime of a single individual. The ontogeny 1 of an individual is not considered evolution; individual organisms do not evolve. The changes in populations that are considered evolutionary are those that are inheritable via the genetic material from one generation to the next. Biological evolution may be slight or substantial; it embraces everything from slight changes in the proportion of different alleles within a population (such as those determining blood types) to the successive alterations that led from the earliest protoorganism2 to snails, bees, giraffes, and dandelions." Douglas J. Futuyma in Evolutionary Biology What changes in evolution? Actually what changes is the frequency of an allele. The frequency of an allele in the gene pool of a population is how often an allele occurs in the genotypes of individuals of the same species that are in the same area - the same population. How often the allele occurs depends on lots of factors such as 1) what the allele codes for - is it a critical trait for survival and 2) is the allele a dominant or a recessive allele. These factors determine whether the allele will be present for a long time or a short time. Natural selection acts on population by changing the frequency of different alleles. If an allele is harmful, it will be eliminated from the population or reduced in its frequency because those individuals in the population exhibiting the trait will not survive. This leads to a fine difference between genotype and phenotype. Remember genotype is the kinds of genes an individual has and phenotype is its observable traits. It is the observable traits that are selected for or against resulting in increased allele frequency or reduced allele frequency, respectively. Since we are also considering genotypes, recall that the three ways that mutations happen most often are changes in the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) sequence due to insertions, deletions, or substitutions. It is very easy to get overly concerned about evolution if the focus is on human evolution. If instead the focus is on the mechanisms of how organisms change over time, a lot of emotional distress can be avoided. Believing that God created the Universe does not necessarily conflict with evolutionary theory. Evolution can be thought of as an accumulation of changes that occur within a population resulting from genetic and environmental changes. Within a population of organisms of the same species there are differences between the individuals (variation). A species is a group of individuals that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring (offspring that can reproduce). The greater the variation between individuals, the greater the likelihood that the species will survive if the environment changes. Since the Earth was created, many environmental changes have occurred and some species have become extinct and others have apparently changed into different species. If an environment 1 Ontogeny: the development of an individual from the moment the egg is fertilized up till adulthood. 2 Protoorganisms: bacteria. Evolution Unit Overview 1 changes too much and there is not enough variation within the population, few if any individuals will survive the change, resulting in the species becoming extinct. But if there is sufficient variation so that some “weirdoes” can survive, then those will be the ones that can reproduce and their characteristic genes transmitted to the next generation. If there were a few before the change, then after the change they will be the majority apparently evolving into another species. Looking at fossils (mineralized remains of organisms) similarities can be observed. Paleontologists and evolutionary biologists have developed relationships between existing and extinct species by tracing anatomical and genetic similarities and differences. Besides mutations and large scale environmental changes, more minor changes can result in speciation. Speciation is the formation of a new species or group of organisms that can no longer interbreed with an original species population. These organisms no longer interbreed because their characteristics (either biological or behavioral) have become too different. This can happen randomly and by geographic isolation of a species. A random change in the kinds of genes in a population is called genetic drift. When populations of interbreeding individuals of the same species are large, the the allele frequency of each successive population is expected to vary little from the frequency of its parent population unless there are adaptive advantages associated with the alleles. But with a small breeding population (a group separated by geography), a change in even one individual can cause a disproportionately greater change in the population’s gene pool. Therefore small populations are more subject to genetic drift effects than large populations. A situation exists when large populations are quickly reduced. This population reduction is called a population bottleneck. Like a bottleneck that is narrower than the bottle itself, genetic variation is reduced. The reduced variation results in sudden changes in the allele frequency within the gene pool, and of the population’s characteristics. These types of changes are not gradual and are called punctuated because sudden and drastic changes can occur. So evolutionary changes are not always slow (gradualism) or always rapid (punctuated equilibrium). Vocabulary 1. Adaptation________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 2. Analogous structures________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 3. Artificial Selection__________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 4. DNA____________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 5. Evolution _________________________________________________________________ 6. Fitness _________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Evolution Unit Overview 2 7. Fossil ___________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 8. Gene Pool ________________________________________________________________ 9. Genetic Drift______________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 10. Geographic Isolation_________________________________________________________ 11. PhylogeneticDiagram_________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 12. Homologous structures_______________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 13. Behavior__________________________________________________________________ 14. Mutation_________________________________________________________________ 15. Natural selection ___________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 16. Phylogenetics______________________________________________________________ 17. Population_________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 18. Genetic Diversity_______________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 19. Biological Species Concept________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 20. Cladogram_____________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 21. Reproductive isolation________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 22. Speciation________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 23. Species__________________________________________________________________ 24. Theory___________________________________________________________________ Evolution Unit Overview 3 25. Vestigial Structure ____________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 26. Darwin___________________________________________________________________ 27. Biodiversity_______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 28. Niche____________________________________________________________________ 29. Genetic Recombination_____________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 30. Galapagos Islands___________________________________________________________ Steps of Natural Selection 1. 2. 3. 4. Evolution Unit Study Guide 1. Evolution can be defined as any change in the relative frequency of alleles in the gene pool of a _____________________ 2. Differences between the members of a population will most likely be passed onto future generations if they are 3. Mutations that are lethal in homozygous individuals can survive in a population by being carried by Evolution Unit Overview 4 A population of land snails colonized a field of yellow grass. At first, the population contained two types of snails, one with brown bands on their shells and another with yellow bands on their shells, as shown in the figure below. After 10 years, most of the snails had shells with yellow bands. 4. What process most likely led to an increase in the number of snails with yellow bands? _________________________________________________________________ 5. What is the most likely reason that there are more yellow-banded snails present in the grassland? A field of crops was sprayed with pesticides to control a population of insects that was eating the crop. Only 1% of the insects survived. The same amount and type of pesticide was sprayed on the field each year for the next 4 years. The graph below shows the percentage of insects that survived each year after the pesticide was used. 6. Why was the pesticide less effective each year in its ability to control the target population of insects? __________________________ ___________________________________________________________ 7. In a species of plant, the sudden appearance of one plant with a different leaf structure would most likely be the result of 8. What 3 processes cause a mutation? 9. In carrier pigeons there is a rare inherited condition that causes the death of the chicks before hatching. In order for this disease to be passed from generation to generation there must be parent birds that Evolution Unit Overview 5 10. Describe natural selection. _________________________________________________________________ 11. The idea that evolution takes place at a continuous but very slow rate is knows as ______ 12. The idea that evolution takes place at one point in time, followed by a long period without change is 13. A genetic change will be maintained in a population if the change 14. According to Darwin’s theory of natural selection, individuals who survive are the ones best adapted for their environment. Their survival is due to the _____________________________________________________________________ 15. When mountain lions prey on a herd of deer, some deer are killed and some escape. Which part of Darwin’s concept of natural selection might be used to describe this situation? ________________________________________________________________ 16. A change in a sequence of DNA is called a 17. Natural selection acts directly on 18. If a mutation introduces a new skin color in a lizard population, what factor might determine whether the frequency of the new allele will increase? _____________________________________________________________________ 19. genetic diversity provides a species with a higher probability of surviving changes to its environment. 20. The difference in the fur color of the individual species in a population is described as ___________________________ 21. Two animals of different species would not be able to 22. Spraying DDT to kill mosquitoes became less effective each year the pesticide was used. This decrease in the effectiveness was probably caused by the fact that ______ 23. When penicillin was first introduced it was very effective in destroying most of the bacteria that cause gonorrhea. Today, certain varieties of this bacterium are resistant to penicillin. Explain the presence of these penicillin resistant bacteria. _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ 24. Although similar in many respects, two species of organisms exhibit differences that make each well adapted to the environment in which it lives. The process of change that may account for these differences is Evolution Unit Overview 6 25. ______________________________ 26. A random change in gene frequency in a small population is called 27. Genetic drift is most likely to effect 28. Geographic and reproductive isolation can result in 29. A species of finch (a type of bird) has been studied on one of the geographically isolated Galapagos Islands for many years. Since the island is small, the lineage of every bird for several generations is known. This allows a family tree of each bird to be developed. Some family groups have survived and others have died out. The groups that survive probably have 30. A single species of squirrel evolved over time into two species, each on opposite sides of the Grand Canyon. This change was most likely due to 31. All the genes of all members of a particular population make up the population’s ___________. 32. Describe a gene pool. ______________________________________________________________ 33. In genetic drift, allele frequencies change because of 34. Genetic drift tends to occur in populations that Evolution Unit Overview 7 35. A small population of chimpanzees lives in a habitat that undergoes no change for a long period. How will genetic drift probably affect this population? ______________________________________________________________________ 36. The separation of populations by barriers such as rivers, mountains, or bodies of water is called 37. The geographic isolation of two populations of a species tends to increase differences between their gene pools because it Comparisons are made between two different organisms by finding the place where the two lines intersect. The number where the columns and rows intersect shows how many amino acids are different in the cytochrome c of both organisms. For example, the number of amino acids that are different when comparing a rabbit's cytochrome c with a tuna's cytochrome c is 17. The larger the number, the greater the difference in the structure of the cytochrome c molecules of the two organisms. 38. According to the table, which pair of organisms is least closely related? 39. According to the table, which pair of organisms is most closely related? 40. In a certain area of undisturbed layers of rock, fossils of horseshoe crabs may be found in the upper layer, and a lower layer contains fossils of trilobites. Trilobites are extinct aquatic arthropods resembling modern horseshoe crabs. This information suggests that Evolution Unit Overview 8 41. In the early stages of development, the embryos of dogs, pigs, and humans resemble each other. This observation suggests that these animals may have 42. An example of a structure that would be homologous to a bird wing would be a 43. The long, slow process of change in species over time is 44. In humans, the pelvis and femur, or thigh bone, are involved in walking. In whales, the pelvis and femur shown in the figure above are 45. Modern sea star larvae resemble some primitive vertebrate larvae. This similarity may suggest that primitive vertebrates 46. The number and location of bones of many fossil vertebrates are similar to those in living vertebrates. Most biologists would probably explain this fact on the basis of ______ _______________________________________________________________________ 47. Individuals within a population of rabbits have different colors of fur as shown in the diagram below. The difference in the fur color of the individual rabbits is described as _____________________. 48. What are three ways a mutation can affect an organism? Evolution Unit Overview 9 1. The earliest known butterflies appeared about 130 million years ago. When did this occur in the geologic time scale? 2. This time accounts for most of the Earth’s history (approximately 88%) and while fossils are rare evidence of fossilized cyanobacteria (formerly known as blue green algae) exists. What was this time in the geologic time scale? 3. The first vascular plants appeared on land about 443 million years ago. Vascular plants with water conducting tissues as compared with non-vascular plants such as mosses. When did this occur in the geologic time scale? 4. During the end of this era 90% of all life on Earth died out. This era is the ________________ Era.(extra credit) 5. This period is known as the Age of the Fish when fish became abundant between 417 mya and 354 mya. When did this period occur in the geologic time scale? 6. Dinosaurs first appeared on Earth about 215 million years ago. When did this occur in the geologic time scale? 7. Dinosaurs became extinct about 65 million years ago. When did this occur in the geologic time scale? 8. The Cretaceous, Jurassic, and Triassic are all periods in the ________________ Era. 9. Humans and their ancestors have been around for about 4 million years. When did this occur in the geologic time scale? 10. Humans with modern features appeared about 100,000 years ago. When did this occur on the geologic time scale? Evolution Unit Overview 10