Download Ch. 8 Conditioning and Learning

Ch. 8 Conditioning and Learning
Page 242
Principles of learning can be used to
1. Understand behavior
2. Manage behavior
Classical + Operant Conditioning
Conditioning = Fundamental type of learning
Classical ConditioningA Neutral Stimulus is repeatedly paired with a stimulus that reliably provokes a
response
Gradually the Neutral Stimulus will begin to elicit a Response
Response by Association
Operant Conditioning =
Responses followed by reinforcement occur more frequently
To understand why people behave… you must understand how responses are being
reinforced.
Cognitive LearningIs not just linking stimulus + responses
Really higher level
We learn by observing + imitating actions of others
Behavioral principles can help manage actions of others
Biological behavior patterns can facilitate the learning of some responses while also
making other responses difficult to learn.
Questions
Pg 293
What is learning?
Most behavior is learned.
Definition of Learning
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.
Reinforcement is important to learning
Definition of Reinforcement
Reinforcement is any event that increases the probability that a response will
occur again.
Definition of Response
Response is any identifiable behavior
Can be observable actions
Can be internal = heartbeat increase
Example- pg 293
Teaching a dog a trick
Reinforce- response by giving dog food
Teach child to be neat (response) give praise (reinforcement)
Antecedents and Consequences
Note what happens before + after a response
Antecedent- events that precede a response
Consequences = Effects that follow a response
Pg 294
Classical Conditioning
Based on what happens before a response
Classical ConditioningAntecedents events become associated with one another.
A stimulus that does not produce a response is linked with one that does.
Learning occurs when New Stimulus elicits response
Reflex responses are important
Stimulus is something that reliably triggers a response
Example- puff of air to the eye causes blink (reflex)
STIMULUS
RESPONSE
Sound of horn before + puff of air (repeated many times)
NEUTRAL STIMULUS PAIRED WITH Natural STIMULUS
(Un-Conditioned Stimulus)
(Air is the Natural Stimulus)
Soon horn alone will make you blink.
P 294
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
Pavlov – Russian Physiologist
 Studying digestion
 To observe salivation dog + food
 Pavlov saw dogs begin to salivate when he entered the room
 Pavlov found learning had occurred
o Called it conditioning
 Known as classical conditioning or Pavlovian Conditioning, or Respondent
Conditioning
Terms defined:
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Neutral Stimulus (NS)- a stimulus that is not associated with a response – the
bell by itself
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)- the bell becomes a stimulus that causes a response
Un-Conditioned Stimulus (US)- aka Natural Stimulus- a stimulus that causes a
specific response = the meat causes salivation naturally
Un-Conditioned Response (UR)- un-learned, reflexive, innate response
(salivating)
Conditioned Response (CR)- a learned response associated with a Conditioned
stimulus
Pavlov’s Experiment:
1. First rang bell = Neutral Stimulus (did not evoke a response)
2. Placed meat on dog’s tongue
3. Dog salivated – and process was repeated
Bell  meat  salivation
Eventually dogs salivate at sound of the bell
Neutral Stimulus (NS) = the bell-later bell becomes the CS= stimulus that = learning
Evokes a response
Un-Conditioned Stimulus (US) = Meat, stimulus innately capable of eliciting a response.
Un-Conditioned Response (UR) = Salivation, Non-learned, Reflex, innate response to
stimulusConditioned Response (CR) = When bell ringsdog associates automatically with food,
and salivates. The (NS) becomes a Conditioned Stimulus
Principles of Classical Conditioning
How Conditioning Occurs:
Acquisition
Higher Order Conditioning
Expectancies
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
Generalization
Discrimination
Stimulus Discrimination
Conditioned Emotional Response
Vicarious + Second Hand Conditioning
Aversive Conditioning
Acquisition: or training a conditioned response;
must be reinforced (strengthened)
Classical Conditioning is reinforced when the conditioned stimulus (Bell) is paired with
an unconditioned stimulus (meat)
The US must follow the CS immediately for conditioning to be successful.
Higher Order Conditioning
Once a response is learned it can be used like unconditioned stimulus
Then another pairing can occur with a new US and create a new conditioned stimulus
Conditioning is also learning by association… Advertisers use associations
Expectancies:
We create mental expectations for how events are inter-connected.
Based on information
We look for associations among events
The CS  Predicts the US
The brain learns to expect that the US will follow the CS
The brain prepares the body to respond to the US
Extinction
Ending a US  before CS will cause conditioning to extinguish
Will weaken expectancy by removing reinforcement = process of Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
Returning to conditioned response after extinction is Spontaneous Recovery
Generalization
Other stimuli similar to CS
May trigger a response
Matches fear stimuli
Stimuli that is less similar to original stimuli, responses decrease
Discrimination
Ability to respond differently to stimuli
Specific generalized stimuli
Stimulus Discrimination – the ability respond differently to various stimuli
Example voice tones
Conditioned Emotional Response (CER)
Emotional responses may be linked to new stimuli
Examples- Face reddened when you were punished as a child
You may blush now when you are embarrassed or ashamed
Or
Pain + Dentist office- thoughts cause reaction
Involuntary Autonomic Nervous System Response (fight or flight)
Are linked with new stimuli and situations- through classical conditioning
CER’s can be expanded through Generalization and Higher Order
Conditioning
Learned Fears and Phobias
Are based on emotional conditioning
A learned emotional reaction to previously neutral stimulus
Phobia
Is a fear that persists even when no realistic danger exists
Animals, water, heights, thunder, fire bugs
Phobias may begin as Conditioned Emotional Responses
CERs can be treated by Desensitization Therapy
Desensitization is used to extinguish fears, anxiety + phobias
How? Therapy exposes patients to feared stimuli
They remain calm and relaxed
Fearful stimuli can be paired to pleasant feelings
Vicarious + Second Hand Conditioning
Occurs when we learn to respond emotionally to a stimulus by observing
another person’s emotional reactions
We can be conditioned vicariously
We can have learned attitudes
Aversive Conditioning:
The client is exposed to an unpleasant stimulus while engaging in the targeted
behavior, the goal being to create an aversion to it.
In adults, aversive conditioning is often used to combat addictions such as
smoking or alcoholism. One common method is the administration of a nauseaproducing drug while the client is smoking or drinking so that unpleasant
associations are paired with the addictive behavior. In addition to smoking and
alcoholism, aversive therapy has also been used to treat nail biting, sex addiction,
and other strong habits or addictions.
Operant Conditioning
Edward Thorndike – Law of Effect
BF SkinnerJohn B. Watson
Little Albert
All living creatures learn by Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning can be used to alter behavior
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Learning is based on consequences of responding.
A response is followed by reinforcer
We associate responses with their consequences
Basic premise- ACTS that are reinforced are repeated.
Example- wear a hat - get compliments - wear hat more often
Antecedent
Reinforcement/response
Consequence
Pg 299-300
Law of effectLearning is strengthened each time a response is followed by a satisfying state of
affairs.
The probability of a response, is altered by the effect it has
Operant Conditioning- refers mainly to learning voluntary responses.
T.V. remote (learned Operant Response) Pushing the button is reinforced by gaining the
result.
Positive Reinforcement- Idea that reward affects learning
Operant Reinforcer
Any event that follows a response and increases its probability of occurring again
Acquiring an Operant Response
Skinner Box- (Conditioning Chamber) to study operant conditioning- in animals
Animals can take action to satisfy needs
Behavior causes  consequences  reinforces behavior
Operant Learning- is based on information and expectancy
Expect a certain response will have a certain effect certain time.
Contingent Reinforcement
Reinforcement works best when given after  desired response has occurred
Pg 302
Timing a ReinforcementOperant Reinforcement is most effective when it rapidly follows a correct
response.
Delay weakens response
Superstitious Behavior
Unnecessary Responses- associated with successful reinforces that appear to
produce reinforcement
Shaping:
The gradual molding of responses to a desired pattern
Animals taught to perform
Training
Beginning incremental reinforcement till response occurs
Step by step <successive> approximations are reinforced
Operant Extinction
Learned responses that are not reinforced gradually fade away
Takes time
Spontaneous recovery still works
Reinforcement + Extinction Combined
Negative Attention Seeking using misbehavior to gain attention
Children ignored for quiet play
Children get attention with more action- yelling … wild play to get attention
Attention is powerful reinforcer
Parents should praise (reinforce) quiet behavior …
Common Aspects of positive and negative reinforcement
Positive Reinforcement occurs- when pleasant or desirable event follows a
response
Negative Reinforcement
Making a response removes an unpleasant event.
Increase responding by ending discomfort
Rat is given constant electric shocks presses a bar to remove the shock
<Action removes unpleasant event—negative stimuli>
1. Response increases
2. Effect of response—is different
Positive for food
Negative to end pain
Punishment is not negative reinforcement
Punishment refers to following a response with an aversive <unpleasant>
consequence
Punishment- decreases the likelihood that the response will occur again.
Occurs when a reinforcer or positive state of affairs is removed
Example- privileges
Operant Reinforcers
Primary Reinforcers
Secondary Reinforcers
Feedback
Primary Reinforcers
Natural
Non-learned
Rooted in biology
Produce comfort
End Discomfort
Fill an immediate physical need (food, water, sex)
Intra Cranial Stimulation
Direct activation of pleasure centers
Actions
reflect
primary
reinforcers:
Heat
Drinking
Fountain
Food
Example of Rat experiments
Learned Secondary Reinforcers
$, praise, attention, approval
Success
Affection
Grades
Can be associated with primary reinforcers
Example: Food + Praise
Token Reinforcer: “Token Economy”
Tangible Secondary reinforcer can be exchanged for primary reinforcers
Don’t lose reinforcing value easily
Used for immediate rewards for learning.
Social Reinforcers
Learned desires for attention and approval
Attention + approval can change the behavior
Knowledge of Results
Provides rapid learning
Improves learning + performance
Feedback
Knowing the degree of achievement + information
Information about the effect a response had
Needs to be frequent, immediate, and detailed
Programmed Instruction (structure)
Presents information to be learned:
Small amounts
Immediate practice
Continuous feedback to learners
Operant conditioning
Continuous Reinforcement = reinforcement follows every correct response
Vs
Partial Reinforcement = schedules of reinforcement
Not every response is reinforced
Partial Reinforcement Effect- characteristics- highly resistant to extinction
Makes habit stronger
Because of expectations develop
Schedules of Partial Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio
Variable reinforcement
Fixed Interval
Variable Interval
Punishment
Lowers probability that a response will occur again
Punishes = consequence- that reduces frequency of target behavior
*only temporarily suppresses a response
Variables-Affecting Punishment
1. Timing
2. Consistency
3. Intensity
Side Effects of Punishment
People use punishments are associated with Classical conditioning
Fear
Resented
Disliked
Escape/Avoidance
Avoiding learning
People escape or avoid
Making a response to avoid/postpone discomfort
Aggression
Frustration causes aggression
Punishment increases aggression
People in pain have a tendency to lash out at others
*Punishment creates an environment for learning aggression