Download Chapter 17: From Gene to Protein

A. P. Biology Review Sheet
The semester exam covers material from the entire course. It includes 63 multiple choice questions
and 6 short response numerical answers (grid ins).
The AP test includes a section like the semester exam (50% of the final AP score), and a second
section that has 2 multi-part free response questions, and 6 short free response questions (50%).
Chapter 2:
1. What 4 elements are the most commonly found in living things?
2. What is a covalent bond? An ionic bond? A hydrogen bond?
3. What is the difference between a polar and a nonpolar covalent bond?
4. Which elements tend to be electronegative?
Chapter 3
1. What are the five properties special properties of water?
2. What is the underlying reason for each of these properties?
3. At what temperature is water the densest?
4. What is a “hydrophobic” substance? A “hydrophilic” substance?
5. At which end of the pH scale is there a greater concentration of hydrogen ions?
Chapter 4
1. What is an “organic” molecule?
2. What property of the carbon atom gives it compatibility with a greater number of different elements
than any other type of element?
3. Know the structures of all of the functional groups that were discussed in class.
4. Which of the functional groups are polar?
5. What is the basic chemical structure of an amino acid?
Chapter 5
1. What is a polymer?
2. What process forms polymers from monomers? What process breaks down polymers into
monomers?
3. What are the characteristics of phospholipids that lends well to a phospholipid bilayer?
4. What portion of the structure of an amino acid gives it characteristics that are different from other
amino acids?
5. What type of bond forms between amino acids?
6. What is the difference between the different levels of protein structure?
7. What type of bond holds alpha helices and beta sheets together?
8. What is a disulfide bridge?
Chapter 6
1. What is an enzyme?
2. What are some environmental conditions that could affect the functioning of an enzyme?
3. What is a substrate?
4. What part of the enzyme interacts with the substrate?
5. What is a competitive inhibitor?
6. What is feedback inhibition?
Chapter 7
1. Know the function of all included cell parts
2. Be able to label the organelles on a cell diagram
3. List 5 differences between plant cells and animal cells.
4. What is a prokaryotic cell? What organisms are composed of these? What are some differences
between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?
5. What are some points of evidence that mitochondria and chloroplast used to be free living
organisms?
6. What is the glycocalyx? What is its function?
7. What would be the usual pathway for a protein that is destined for secretion?
Chapter 8
1. What types of molecules have an easy time diffusing through the plasma membrane? What types of
molecules have a harder time?
2. What do integral proteins do? Why is this necessary?
3. What main molecules make up the phospholipids bilayer? What is the function of each (don’t
forget about cholesterol)?
4. What is diffusion? Facilitated diffusion? Osmosis? Active transport? Cotransport? Endocytosis?
Phagocytosis? Pinocytosis? Exocytosis?
5. What is an electrochemical gradient? How is it established and maintained? What can it be used
for?
6. How does the sodium-potassium pump work? Proton pumps?
7. What is the difference between a hypotonic, hypertonic, and isotonic solution?
8. In which type of solution would a cell be at equilibrium? Do molecules stop moving when they are
in a system that has reached equilibrium? If you had a set up where the cells were placed in an
isotonic medium, how could you tell?
9. What condition is preferable to plant cells? Animal cells?
10. What is plasmolysis? Turgor pressure? Lysis?
11. Why don’t plant cells explode in a hypertonic solution?
12. What is water potential?
13. Be able to calculate solute potential and water potential using the equations on your gold sheet.
Chapter 36
1. Water moves from _____________ water potential to ______________ water potential.
2. What is a aquaporin?
Chapter 11
1. How is a receptor protein binding to a ligand similar to an enzyme binding to a substrate?
2. What happens in a G protein linked receptor system? A tyrosine-kinase system? A gated ion
channel system?
3. What is a protein kinase? A protein phosphotase?
4. What is the advantage to having a system that is complex, with many steps?
Chapter 43
1. What are the different parts of a neuron? In what direction are nerve impulses generated?
2. Describe the changes to the permeability of the membrane of the axon during the stages of an action
potential. How do these changes impact membrane potential at each stage?
3. What is the function of the myelin sheath?
Chapter 9
3. Be able to identify the oxidizing and the reducing agent in a chemical reaction.
4. What portion of the ATP molecule is high in energy? Why?
5. What are the 3 products of glycolysis?
6. Through what method are the ATP molecules in glycolysis generated?
7. Where does glycolysis take place in the cell?
8. What are the products of the conversion from pyruvate to acetyl coA?
9. What are the products of the Kreb’s cycle?
10. Where does the Kreb’s cycle take place in the cell?
11. Through what process are the ATP molecules of the Kreb’s cycle generated?
12. What is the electron transport chain?
13. Where is it located?
14. What is the role of oxygen in the electron transport chain?
What protein allows the H+ ions to pass across the membrane in order to generate ATP?
How many ATP molecules are made in the ETC?
Through what method are the ATP molecules in the ETC generated?
What is the net total of ATP molecules that are generated per glucose molecule in aerobic
respiration? How efficient is this? What happens to the remainder of the energy that was stored in
the glucose molecule?
19. What are the two types of fermentation? What are the products of each? Which organisms use what
type of fermentation in the lack of oxygen?
Chapter 10
20. What is the chemical equation for photosynthesis?
21. What are some photosynthetic pigments? What are the main ones? What color are they?
22. Which photosynthetic pigment is absolutely necessary for photosynthesis to proceed?
23. What colors of light are least utilized for photosynthesis?
24. What is produced during cyclic electron flow? Through what process?
25. In noncyclic electron flow, where does photosystem II get its electrons? Where does photosystem I
get its electrons?
26. What is produced through noncyclic electron flow? What are these products used for?
27. What is produced in the Calvin cycle? What is used?
28. What is the job of Rubisco?
29. If the stomata of a plant close, what gas will accumulate in the leaf? What process could result as a
result of this problem?
30. How are C4 plants adapted in order to attempt to minimize photorespiration? What is an example of
a C4 plant?
31. How are CAM plants adapted in order to minimize photorespiration? What is an example of a
CAM plant?
Chapter 16: The Molecular Basis of Inheritance
1. Know the contributions of the following individuals to the early understanding of DNA’s structure
and importance as the genetic material: Griffith; Avery, McCarthy, and McCloud; Hershey and
Chase; Chargaff; Pauling; Franklin and Wilkins; and Watson and Crick.
2. What is bacterial transformation?
3. Understand Griffith’s experiment.
4. Of what are chromosomes composed?
5. Why did most scientists think the protein was the genetic material prior to the research of Griffith,
Avery, and Hershey/Chase?
6. Understand Hershey and Chase’s experiment.
7. What information led to the discovery of the structure of the DNA molecule?
8. What are the three parts of a nucleotide? How are they arranged in the DNA molecule? What kind
of bond holds the two chains of the double helix together?
9. When is DNA replicated?
10. Understand Messelsen-Stahl’s experiment.
11. What does “semi-conservative” replication mean?
12. What are the functions of primase? DNA polymerase? Ligase?
13. What is the difference between the 5’ and 3’ ends of the DNA molecule? Where are the 5’ and 3’
ends on opposite strands of the double helix?
14. What is the difference between the leading and lagging strand during replication? Why are Okazaki
fragments required on the lagging strand?
15. Why don’t prokaryotes have to use Okazaki fragments?
16. What is a telomere? Why do they shorten over a period of time? In what types of cells can they be
lengthened? By what enzyme?
Chapter 17: From Gene to Protein
1. What are the similarities and differences between DNA and RNA?
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2. What are the functions of mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA?
3. Why is the genetic code “universal”?
4. What are the steps of transcription?
5. What is the main enzyme involved in transcription?
6. What is the difference between the end products of transcription in prokaryotes and eukaryotes?
7. What happens in RNA processing? What is the function of the parts that are added?
8. What is the difference between an intron and an exon? What might be a function of the introns?
9. What are the different parts of a ribosome?
10. What are the steps of translation?
11. What is an anticodon? What is wobble?
12. What are the “traffic signals” in transcription and translation?
13. What is a polyribosome?
Chapter 18: Bacteria and Viruses
1. What is the basic structure of a virus?
2. What type(s) of nucleic acids make up the genome of a virus?
3. What are the stages of the lytic cycle? The lysogenic cycle?
4. What does a retrovirus need to do in order to incorporate into the host cell’s genome?
5. What is a prion?
6. Of what is the envelope of a virus composed?
7. How do vaccines work?
8. Describe the bacterial genome.
9. What is a plasmid?
10. What are the 4 sources of genetic recombination in bacteria? How do they occur?
11. Understand the trp operon as an example of a repressible operon.
12. Understand the lac operon as an example of an inducible operon.
Chapter 19: Control of Eukaryotic Gene Expression
1. What effects does methylation have on gene expression? Histone acetylation?
2. What are some differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic DNA organization?
3. Other than methylation and histone acetylation, what are some other ways in which gene expression
can be altered?
Chapter 20: DNA Technology
1. Explain how a eukaryotic gene can be cloned by using a plasmid. Include an explanation of what
must be done to remove introns from the eukaryotic gene.
2. What organisms naturally have restriction enzymes? For what purpose?
3. What are restriction enzymes used for in biotechnology?
4. What is a “sticky end”, and how is it created?
5. How are probes used to screen colonies to find the ones that contain the gene of interest?
6. How does gel electrophoresis work?
7. How can gel electrophoresis be used to identify differences between individuals? What is a RFLP?
8. What is a VNTR region of DNA? How can it be used to generate a DNA fingerprint?
9. What is PCR? When is it used? What enzyme is necessary for this process? What other ingredients
are necessary for this process?
Chapter 21
1. Describe the role of cytoplasmic determinants, induction, and Hox genes on development.
Chapter 22
1. Be able to explain the mechanism of natural selection in detail.
2. What did Linnaeus do? How was it used by Darwin?
3. What was Lamarck’s idea about how populations changed over time? What was erroneous about
Lamarck’s mechanism of genetic change?
4. What part of the mechanism of natural selection was Darwin’s weak point? Why?
5. How did Lyell’s ideas help to shape Darwin’s development of evolution by natural selection?
6. What determines relative Darwinian fitness p. 457?
7. What are the points of evidence for evolution?
8. What is a homologous structure? What is a vestigial structure?
9. What is biogeography? How does it provide evidence for convergent evolution?
Chapter 23
1. What is the definition of microevolution?\
2. If the conditions for HW equilibrium are met, what will happen to the allele frequencies of a
population over time?
3. Does meiosis and sexual reproduction alone cause microevolution?
4. What are the 5 causes of microevolution? Be able to explain how they can cause microevolution.
5. HW problems
6. What is bottleneck effect? Founder effect?
7. What does it mean to be polymorphic?
8. What is a cline?
9. Why aren’t all deleterious genes eliminated from a population?
10. What is heterozygote advantage?
11. Explain the different modes of selection.
12. What is sexual selection? How can it be maladaptive?
13. Why can’t natural selection make perfect organisms?
Chapter 24
1. What is macroevolution?
2. What is a species as defined by the biological species concept (Mayr).
3. Explain the various prezygotic and postzygotic reproductive isolating barriers.
4. What is the difference between allopatric and sympatric speciation?
5. Explain an example of allopatric speciation.
6. How do reproductive barriers evolve?
7. What is polyploidy? What happens in an autopolyploid situation? What happens in an allopolyploid
situation?
8. Is sympatric speciation more common in plants or in animals? Explain.
9. Explain the difference between punctuated equilibrium and gradualism.
10. How do evolutionary novelties arise?
11. How can changes in allometric growth result in evolutionary change? Timing of maturity? Hox
genes?
Chapter 25
1. How do fossils form in sedimentary rock?
2. What methods can be used to date fossils?
3. How did the formation and subsequent breakup of Pangea affect organisms that were alive at the
time?
4. What event marks the end of an era, and the beginning of another?
5. What is thought to have caused the Permian mass extinction? The cretaceous extinction?
6. Define a phylogeny
7. What are the levels of hierarchical classification that were developed by Linnaeus? How are they
changed today?
8. What is binomial nomenclature? How is it useful?
9. What is the difference between a monophyletic and a polyphyletic group?
10. What is the difference between homologous and analogous structures? Divergent and convergent
evolution?
11. Why is an outgroup important when constructing a cladogram?
12. What types of information are used to construct the best possible phylogeny for a group of
organisms?
13. What is a molecular clock? What type of DNA mutates at a higher rate? What type mutates at a
lower rate?
Chapter 26
1. What were the characteristics of primitive earth?
2. What were the characteristics of the earliest life forms?
Chapter 40
1. Describe the differences between an endotherm and an ectotherm? What are the advantages of each
metabolic strategy?
2. What is a countercurrent heat exchanger?
3. Describe the role of brown fat, hibernation, and torpor for endotherms.
Chapter 41
1. Describe how form fits function in the digestive system.
2. Describe how the digestive system and the circulatory system are linked in the functioning of a
large, complex organism.
3. What is intracellular digestion?
4. What is a gastrovascular cavity? Why does this system work fine for a Planarian, but would not
work for us.
5. What are the stages in food processing?
6. Describe the role of each of the structures in the human digestive tract.
7. Describe where each of the 4 macromolecules are digested and by what enzyme? Where are these
macromolecules typically absorbed?
8. Describe how gastrin is involved in a positive and a negative feedback loop
Chapter 43
1. Describe the differences between innate and acquired immunity.
2. Describe the differences between non-specific and specific immunity.
3. Describe the 3 lines of defense.
4. What is the role of macrophages? Helper-T cells? B-lymphocytes? Cytotoxic T cells? Antibodies?
5. What is an example of paracrine signaling in the immune system?
6. Describe how interleukin II production shows positive feedback.
7. Describe the difference in response between primary exposure to an antigen and secondary
exposure.
8. What are some human immune system disorders? Describe how they cause trouble.
Chapter 50 Introduction to Ecology and the Biosphere
1. What is the difference between a biotic and an abiotic factor? What are some examples of each?
2. What is a population?
3. What would be an example of a problem that each of the following types of ecologists would be
concerned with:
a. Organismal
b. Population
c. Community
d. Ecosystem
Chapter 52 : Population Ecology
1. Draw a diagram of what the distribution of individuals in a population would look like in each of
the types of dispersion (clumped, uniform, random). What are characteristics of the population that
leads to a particular type of dispersion?
2. What is N? What is K? How does r change as N nears K?
3. On a graph be able to identify K, what the logistic model of growth looks like vs. exponential
growth?
4. What are the characteristics of a r selected vs. a k-selected population?
5. What is the Allee effect?
6. What is a limiting factor? What is a density-dependent factor vs. a density independent factor?
Chapter 53: Community Ecology
1. What is the difference between the individualistic and the interactive hypothesis of species
richness?
2. What is coevolution?
3. What is competition? What is competitive exclusion? What is resource partitioning?
4. What is predation? What are some defenses against predation that plants and animals have?
5. What is included in an organism’s niche?
6. Know some examples of resource partitioning, character displacement, competitive exclusion.
7. What is parasitism, commensalism, and mutualism? What is an example of each type of symbiotic
relationship?
8. What is a keystone predator? What happens to a community if a keystone predator becomes
extinct?
9. What is species richness vs. species diversity?
Chapter 54: Ecosystems
1. What are the different trophic levels?
2. What trophic level has the most energy available? Biomass (usually)? Bioaccumulation of toxins?
Numbers of individuals?
3. Why are food chains usually limited to 5 levels?
4. What is primary productivity? What factors usually limit primary productivity in an aquatic
community vs. in a terrestrial community? What is the difference between gross primary
productivity and net productivity?
5. What is the term for the total biomass of plants in an ecosystem?
6. What ecosystems would have a high rate of production? What ecosystems would have a low rate or
production?
7. What is the efficiency %of energy transfer between trophic levels?
8. What determines the rate of nutrient recycling? What would be an example of a place where
nutrients would cycle quickly?