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Mission Possible
Richard Melgarejo
Introduction:
A. Well as of right now I do consider myself to be a scientist because I have gone
through plenty of scientific courses. I feel I can be able to manage and go
with the scientific method. Also, I am a scientist because I use the scientific
method in my everyday life. I mean when I feel there is something wrong
with one of my daily routines, I go and try to find out if there is a problem.
Then I inspect the problem and then finally form a good hypothesis of why I
am having that problem. Finally, I test ways on how to solve my problem and
analyze the data I have gathered to come up with a solution for my problem.
B. Well as of right now I am in high school. I feel I am not yet ready to set a
“career goal” because right now I don’t have a career I just have plenty of
jobs. If you remember the saying “Nothing is set in stone”, well that is
exactly what I mean. I am young now and I don’t have clue what I want to do
with my career yet, but what I am doing is opening doors meaning I am
gaining valuable experience which I can use later on to find out what I want to
have as my career.
C. Education is the best tool you will ever have. You will never lose it you will
always have it with you. I personally believe I would not be where I am today
if education was not a major part in my life. I love learning and I believe it is
the tool you need the most to ever achieve your highest goal.
D. Life is a hard game to play. You can lose one day and win the next. People
never have a clue of what will exactly happen with life. Since life is a roller
coaster ride, I have myself motivated by a dying desire to achieve moderate
wealth, meaning middle income and being able to help or even teach
individuals on subjects that I love. What also gets me going is the need for a
college education, a free one at that. So right now everything I do is geared
toward going to college for free.
Chapter 1 Objectives:
A. Briefly describe unifying themes that pervade the science of biology.
B. Diagram the hierarchy of structural levels in biology.
C. Explain how the properties of life emerge from complex organization.
D. Describe seven emergent properties associated with life.
E. Explain how technological breakthroughs contributed to the formulation of the
cell theory and our current knowledge of the cell.
F. Distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
G. Explain, in their own words, what is meant by "form fits function."
H. List the five kingdoms of life and distinguish among them.
I. Outline the scientific method.
J. Distinguish between inductive and deductive reasoning.
K. Explain how science and technology are interdependent.
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
Unifying themes are the basic ideas of biology. They are the ones that will
remain forever even when new methods are thought up. Biological methods
are freshly thought up everyday but unifying themes are the building blocks
for these new methods.
Atoms -> Molecules -> Cells -> Tissues -> Organs
Properties of life emerge from the interaction between components. But
organs cannot function if pieces are missing. The emergence of life from the
complex organization connects every piece so that every piece is needed for
an organ to operate or a counteracting component.
1. Order-life has to be made with complex order.
2. Reproduction- Creating new life.
3. Growth and Development-producing an organism that is characteristic of its
species.
4. Energy utilization-energy is needed to produce a job that is needed to
survive.
5. Response to the environment-the act of protecting yourself for survival.
6. Homeostasis-regulatory mechanisms maintain an organism’s internal
environment within tolerable limits, even though the external environment
may fluctuate.
7. Evolutionary adaptation-life evolves as a result of the interaction between
organisms and their environments.
With discoveries being built on from other scientists. All major discoveries
were built up from a lot of minor ones. The cell theory was made from a
generalization and that cells can also reproduce.
A prokaryotic cells are microorganisms called bacteria. Eukaryotic cells
Other than bacteria these are what other cells are made out of because they are
far more complex.
“form fits function” means that the form of a bacteria or organism is meant so
that it can survive. It has been given a form with all its needs met to survive.
1. Kingdom Monera- all prokaryotes, 2. Kingdom Protista-unicellular
eukaryotes and their relatively simple multicellular relatives, 3.Kingdom
Plantae-multicellular eukaryotes that carry out photosynthesis, 4. Kingdom
I.
J.
K.
Fungi-nutritional mode of its members, organisms that absorb nutrients after
decomposing organic refuse, and 5. Kingdom Animalia- multicellular
eukaryotes that ingest other organisms.
I learned this in chemistry two years ago.
I learned this in chemistry last year.
I learned this in chemistry two years ago.
Chapter 2 Objectives:
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
Define element and compound.
State four elements essential to life that make up 96% of living matter.
Describe the structure of an atom.
Define and distinguish among atomic number, mass number, atomic weight,
and valence.
Given the atomic number and mass number of an atom, determine the number
of neutrons.
Explain the octet rule and predict how many bonds an atom might form.
Define electronegativity and explain how it influences the formation of
chemical bonds.
Distinguish among nonpolar covalent, polar covalent and ionic bonds.
Describe the formation of a hydrogen bond and explain how it differs from a
covalent or ionic bond.
A-I. – I learned last year from AP chemistry
Chapter 3:
Outline:
I. Water’s Polarity and Its Effects
A. The polarity of water molecules results in hydrogen bonding
B. Organisms depend on the cohesion of water molecules
C. Water moderates temperatures on Earth
D. Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid because ice floats
E. Water is the solvent of life
II. The Dissociation of Water
A. Organisms are sensitive to changes in pH
III. Acid Precipitation Threatens the Fitness of the Environment
Key Terms:
polar molecule Celsius scale solute hydrogen ion
cohesion(hold together) calorie(1 cal=4.184j) solvent
adhesion(cling together of one substance to the other) kilocalorie aqueous solution hydroxide ion
surface tension hydrophilic(an affinity for water) acid
kinetic energy specific heat hydrophobic(repel water) base
pH scale
temperature solution
Objectives:
A. Describe how water contributes to the fitness of the environment to support life.
B. Describe the structure and geometry of a water molecule, and explain what properties emerges as a
result of this structure.
C. Explain the relationship between the polar nature of water and its ability to form hydrogen bonds.
D. List five characteristics of water that are emergent properties resulting from hydrogen bonding.
E. Describe the biological significance of the cohesiveness of water.
F. Explain how water's high specific heat, high heat of vaporization and expansion upon freezing affect
both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.
G. Explain how the polarity of the water molecule makes it a versatile solvent.
H. Write the equation for the dissociation of water, and explain what is actually transferred from one
molecule to another.
I. Explain the basis for the pH scale.
A. Water is the most abundant resource on Earth it regulates the temperature of the earth and every
living thing on Earth needs water to survive. Also, since ice floats the living organisms in the
ocean stay alive.
B. The structure of a water molecule results from its hydrogen bonding. It forms a bent design and
has an angle less that 107.5 actually being 105. This is due to that the bonds of the water molecule
are polar, meaning that they have one slightly positive atom (H) and one that is slightly negative
(O). They can form up to four different bonds within the molecule giving it the ability to have a
cohesive behavior, it’s ability to stabilize temperature, it’s expansion upon freezing, and its
versatility as a solvent for life. When the four different charges connect they provide a bond that
is strong, almost Ionic.
Note: xylem vessels pull water upwards from the bottom of a tree.
C. The bonds in the molecules break and form at a rapid pace, the bonds stay together for about one
trillionth of a second. They do this because the hydrogen bonds are slightly weaker than covalent
bonds so the bonds are more likely to break at a faster rate.
D. The hydrogen bonds give water the ability to be Cohesive, Adhesive, and give good Surface
Tension. Also, the hydrogen bonding also High Specific Heat, which means the amount of energy
to raise an element one degree higher and High Heat of Vaporization, which means transfer from
liquid to gas. Lastly, Ice Floats due to hydrogen bonding. The ability of the water molecules to
expand is due to its hydrogen bonding.
E.
The cohesiveness of water contributes to the job of photosynthesis. It transports water against
gravity in plants. The water can be transferred from the roots to the tops of plants and trees.
F. The specific heat of water, heat of vaporization, and expansion upon freezing regulates the climate
of the Earth and also in the ocean. No abrupt change happens because water’s temperature is hard
to raise and if it ever does the heat of vaporization cools the Earth and the sea. The ability to
expand keeps living organisms living under the sea, so that life in the ocean never stops.
G. The polarity of water makes it a versatile solvent because it has both charges + and -.
H. H2O = H + OH or H2O + H2O = H3O + OH. Only one H is transferred from one water molecule
to the other. It is actually a dissociation of water molecules.
I. The basis for the pH scale is the fluctuations in H or OH concentrations. This is to determine
whether a product is an acid or a base.
Note: Acid Precipitation comes from combustion of factories and also is a major concern of
environmentalists.
Chapter4:
Outline:
I. The Importance of Carbon
A. Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds
B. Carbon atoms are the most versatile building blocks of molecules
C. Variation in carbon skeletons contributes to the diversity of organic molecules
II. Functional Groups
A. Functional groups also contribute to the molecular diversity of life
Key Terms:
hydroxyl group(alcohols) alcohol(OH at end)
carbonyl group(aldehyde and ketone) aldehyde(CO Double bond at end) ketone(CO Double bond
anywhere but end)
carboxyl group(carboxylic acids) carboxylic acid(COOH at end)
amino group(amines) amine(NH2 at end)
sulfhydryl group(thiols) thiol(SH at end)
phosphate groups ((PO4) –3)
organic chemistry
hydrocarbon functional group
isomer
Objectives:
Explain how carbon’s electron configuration determines the kinds and number of bonds
carbon will form.
B. Describe how carbon skeletons may vary, and explain how this variation contributes to the diversity
and complexity of organic molecules.
C. Recognize the major functional groups, and describe the chemical properties of organic molecules in
which they occur.
A.
Carbon’s electron configuration is one that has two valence electrons in the first level and four on the
next level giving it the ability to do covalent bonds because Carbon cannot form ionic bonds.
It is not allowed to lose or gain electrons. It can form four covalent bonds.
Carbon skeletons can have isomers. A structural isomer is one that two elements have the same
formula but different shape (i.e. C4H10) also, there can be geometric isomers have all the
same covalent partnerships, but they differ in their spatial arrangements. Lastly, they can
have Enantiomers are just like your hands, mirror images of each other. When compounds
have isomers it can contain one that works and one that does not or one that is good for you
and one that is not.
Hydroxyl Group-the carbon skeleton that contains an OH bonds at the end of it. Electronegative and helps
dissolve organic compounds.
Carbonyl Group-the carbon skeleton for aldehyde CO at the end or the ketone with CO anywhere.
(double bond)
Carboxyl Group-one that contains COOH at the end of skeleton. Makes formic acid and Acetic acid
this happens cuz H tends to dissociate
Amino Group-the carbon skeleton that has a NH2 bonds at the end. Building blocks of proteins
Sulfhydryl Group-has a SH at the end. Help stabilize the intricate structure of many proteins
Phosphate Group-has a ((PO4)-3) at the end. Transfer energy between organic
molecules.
Chapter 5:
Outline:
I. Polymer Principles
A. Most macromolecules are polymers
B. A limitless variety of polymers can be built from a small set of monomers
II. Carbohydrates: Fuel and Building Material
A. Sugars, the smallest carbohydrates, serve as fuel and carbon sources
B. Polysaccharides, the polymers of sugars, have storage and structural roles
III. Lipids: Diverse Hydrophobic Molecules
A. Fats store large amounts of energy
B. Phospholipids are major components of cell membranes
C. Steroids include cholesterol and certain hormones
IV. Proteins: The Molecular Tools of the Cell
A. A polypeptide is a polymer of amino acids connected in a specific sequence
B. A protein’s function depends on its specific conformation
V. Nucleic Acids: Informational Polymers
A. Nucleic acids store and transmit hereditary information
B. A nucleic acid strand is a polymer of nucleotides
C. Inheritance is based on replication of the DNA double helix
D. We can use DNA and proteins as tape measures of evolution
Key Terms:
Polymer (many molecules connected by bonds) cellulose (a major component of the tough walls that
enclose plant cells) condensation reaction (when two molecules become covalently bonded to each other
through loss of a small molecule) dehydration reaction (same as condensation reaction) hydrolysis (break
bonds with water) monosaccharide (carbohydrate that provides nutrients) disaccharide (transports carbs
from leaves to roots) polysaccharide (storage material or protective walls for cells or organisms) glycosidic
linkage(a covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides) starch(a storage polysaccharide of plants)
glycogen(a storage carb, releases when needed) chitin(used to build exoskeleton) lipid(little or no affinity
with water) fatty acid(hydrophobic has a skeleton of 16 or 18 carbon atoms) triacylglycerol(fat) saturated
fatty acid(has only a single carbon bonding to the hydrogens) unsaturated fatty acid(one or more double
bonds, when removing hydrogen atoms from the carbon skeleton) cholesterol (steroid) conformation
(unique three dimensional shape) polypeptide (a polymer of many amino acids connected by peptide
bonds) peptide bond (a covalent connection) pleated sheet (the polypeptide chain folds back and forth , or
where two regions of the chain lie parallel to each other) alpha (a) helix (a delicate coil held together by
hydrogen bonding between every fourth peptide bond)
nucleotide steroid pyrimidine tertiary structure purine protein hydrophobic interaction ribose disulfide
bridges polynucleotide double helix quaternary structure monomer amino acid denaturation protein
chaperone proteins fat conformation gene nucleic acid primary structure deoxyribonucleic acid secondary
structure ribonucleic acid
Objectives:
A. List the four major classes of biomolecules.
B. Describe how covalent linkages are formed and broken in organic polymers.
C. Describe the distinguishing characteristics of carbohydrates, and explain how they are classified.
D. Identify a glycosidic linkage and describe how it is formed.
E. Describe the important biological functions of polysaccharides.
F. Explain what distinguishes lipids from other major classes of macromolecules.
G. Describe the unique properties, building block molecules and biological importance of the three
important groups of lipids: fats, phospholipids and steroids.
H. Distinguish between a saturated and unsaturated fat
I. Describe the characteristics that distinguish proteins from the other major classes of
macromolecules, and explain the biologically important functions of this group.
J. List and recognize four major components of an amino acid
K. Explain what determines protein conformation
L. Define primary structure
M. Describe the two types of secondary protein structure
N. Explain how weak interactions and disulfide bridges contribute to tertiary protein
structure.
O. Describe quaternary protein structure.
P. Define denaturation and explain how proteins may be denatured.
Q. Describe the characteristics that distinguish nucleic acids from the other major groups
of macromolecules.
R. Summarize the functions of nucleic acids.
S. List the major components of a nucleotide
T. Distinguish between a pyrimidine and a purine.
U. List the functions of nucleotides.
V. Briefly describe the three-dimensional structure of DNA.
A. Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, and Nucleic Acids
B. In organic molecules the covalent molecules are broken and made through the process of Condensation
and Hydrolysis. The only thing that really happens is that either water is formed or broken down in
both processes.
C. There are three kinds of carbohydrates. Monosaccharides have molecular formulas similar to the ratio
CH2O. Monosaccharides vary from the length of the Carbon atoms. Monosaccharides are major
nutrients for cells.
Disaccharides are a double sugar consisting of two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic
linkage, a covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides. They are used to transport
carbohydrates from leaves to roots and other nonphotosynthetic organs in the form of sucrose.
Polysaccharides are macromolecules. They are polymers with a few thousand monosaccharides
are linked together. They are used a storage or as building material for the cell or the whole
organism.
D. A glycosidic linkage is a covalent bond formed from two monosaccharides that produce a
disaccharide. For example, maltose is a disaccharide formed by linking two molecules of glucose.
E. Polysaccharides are the carbohydrates that either store energy or the carbs that build protective walls
around cells or even organisms.
F. Lipids are the only macromolecules that have no affinity to water
Note: Why does the phosphate group in Phosphlipids form a hydrophilic head that has an affinity for
water?
G. Fats: are major for energy storage and they also insulate the body and cushion vital organs, the bonds
are made from joining a glycerol to a fatty acid by bonding the hydroxyl group and the carboxyl group
that release a water molecule in the process. Phosolipids: two fatty acids instead of three in fats, third
hydroxyl group are joined to a phosphate group, major components of cell membranes. Steroids: four
interconnected rings, common component in membranes of animal cells.
H. A saturated fat is one that has only single bonds in the three tails. An unsaturated fat is one that has
one or more double bonds. Saturated fat produces atherosclerosis and can impede blood flow.
I. Proteins account for 50% of the dry cells in cells and are in almost all of what organisms do, they are
used for structural support, storage, transport of other substances, signaling from one part of the
organism to the other, movement, defense against foreign substances, and by regulating metabolism.
They all have a unique three dimensional shape and is only made from 20 amino acids.
J. The Carbon is bonded to four different covalent partners, three are hydrogen atoms, a carboxyl group,
an amino group and also the R group called the side chain. Depending on the side chain is either + or
– determining if it is hydrophilic or not or if it is hydrophobic or not.
K. The information carried by a polypeptide that includes an amino acid sequence is what determines the
three dimensional shape of an atom becomes.
L. The precise sequence of amino acids in proteins. If one os wrong or messed up you cause sickle-cell
disease.
M. The two types of secondary structure include an alpha helix, which is in a coil, or a pleated sheet where
it goes back and forth.
N. The weak interactions and also the disulfide bridges bring together the protein so that its shape is
made, while it is being folded.
O.
Chapter 6:
Outline:
I. Metabolism, Energy and Life
A. The chemistry of life is organized into metabolic pathways
B. Organisms transform energy
C. The energy transformations of life are subject to two laws of thermodynamics
D. Organisms live at the expense of free energy
E. ATP powers cellular work by coupling exergonic to endergonic reactions
II. Enzymes
A. Enzymes speed up metabolic reactions by lowering energy barriers
B. Enzymes are substrate-specific
C. The active site is an enzyme’s catalytic center
D. A cell’s physical and chemical environment affects enzyme activity
III. The Control of Metabolism
A. Metabolic control often demends on allosteric regulation
B. The location of enzymes within a cell helps order metabolism
Objectives:
A. Explain the role of catabolic and anabolic pathways in the energy exchanges of cellular
metabolism.
B. Dtinguish between kinetic and potential energy.
C. Explain, in their own words, the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics.
Describe the function of ATP in the cell.
List the three components of ATP and identify the major class of macromolecules of which it
belongs.
Explain how ATP performs cellular work.
Explain the relationship between enzyme structure and enzyme specificity.
Explain the induced fit model of enzyme function and describe the catalytic cycle of an
enzyme.
Explain how substrate concentration affects the rate of an enzyme-controlled reaction.
Explain how enzyme activity can be regulated or controlled by environmental conditions,
cofactors, enzyme inhibitors and allosteric regulators.
Distinguish between allosteric activation and cooperativity.