Download Circulatory System part 1

BASIC ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY
ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
Table of Contents
Introduction
Chapter 1..............................................Cardiovascular System (Circulatory)
Chapter 2..............................................Lymphatic System (Circulatory)
Chapter 3..............................................Respiratory System
Chapter 4..............................................Digestive System
Chapter 5..............................................Endocrine System
Chapter 6..............................................Urinary System
Chapter 7..............................................Reproductive System
Chapter 8..............................................Nervous System
Chapter 9..............................................Skeletal System
Chapter 10............................................Muscular System
Chapter 11............................................Integumentary System
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I. INTRODUCTION
A. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY DEFINED.
Anatomy (anatome = to dissect.): The study of structure and the relationship of
structures to one another.
Different types of anatomy exist:
1. Surface: The study of form and markings on the surface of the body.
2. Gross (macroscopic): The study of structures that can be viewed without the
use of a microscope.
3. Systematic: The study of body systems.
4. Regional: The study of specific regions of the body.
Physiology: A study of the function of the human body or it’s parts.
1. Each structure is custom modeled to carry out a particular function or set of
functions.
2. Structure very often determines the function the part will perform.
3. Body functions influence the size, shape, and health of structures.
B. LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION
1. Chemical
2. Cellular
3. Tissue
4. Organ
5. System
6. Organism
C.
STRUCTURAL PLAN
There are several anatomical & physiological aspects that make the human being
different from other organisms. Some of these important differences include:
1. The presence of a vertebral column.
2. A tube-within-a-tube construction (the GI tract is one long tube running
through our bodies, the other tube.)
3. Bilateral symmetry
4. The presence of a cerebrum (higher level/abstract thought)
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Body Directions
Posterior: Back or Dorsal
Anterior: Front or ventral
Distal: Toward the end
Proximal: Closer to the core or root of the extremity
Inferior: lower or below
Superior: higher or above
Lateral: Toward the side (away from midline)
Medial: Toward the center (toward midline)
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Body Regions
The Four Quadrants
Four body cavities
1- Cranium / skull
2- Thoracic
3- Abdominal
4- Pelvic
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RUQ-
Liver, Gall bladder
Colon, Small Intestine
LUQ- spleen, Pancreas, colon
Small Intestine, stomach
RLQ-
Colon, Small Intestine, Appendix
LLQ- Colon, Small Intestine,
Ovaries
Ovaries
Hollow organs:
- when damaged: rupture, leak, inflammation, infection
Solid Organs:
- when damaged: bleed heavily
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Chapter 1
Circulatory System
The circulatory system is subdivided into the cardiovascular system and the lymphatic system.
Cardiovascular System
The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, which is a muscular pumping device, and a
closed system of vessels called arteries, veins, and capillaries. As the name implies, blood
contained in the circulatory system is pumped by the heart around a closed circle or circuit of
vessels as it passes again and again through the various "circulations" of the body.
Purpose of the circulatory system:
1. Primary
a. Transport Oxygen and nutrients to the cells
b. Transport Carbon Dioxide and waste from the cells
2. Maintaining acid-base / fluid balance
3. Protecting the body against disease
4. Preventing bleeding by forming clots
5. Helping to regulate body temperature
Heart anatomy
Four chambers: left and right atria, left and right ventricle
Artery: blood vessel that takes blood away from the heart
Vein: blood vessel that takes blood toward the heart
Atria: receiving chambers
Blood comes from circulation vessels and leads to the ventricles
The smaller of the chambers, has thin walls
Ventricle:
discharging chamber
Pumps blood to the lungs and body
The larger of the chambers, has thick walls
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Heart valves
1. atroventricular valve (AV valve)
a. right side = tricuspid valve, in between right atria and right ventricle, has
three flaps
b. left side = bicuspid valve, (or Mitral) in between left atria and left ventricle –
two flaps
open = movement (gravity and pressure difference = blood moves from atria to
ventricle)
close = blood stays in atria
chordae tendineae: “heart strings” – connective tissue attached to the AV valves, act as guide
wires, important for closing the AV valves
2. semilunar valve (SL valve)
- between ventricle and blood vessel, it looks like tree crescent shaped flaps. There it no
work done to open them, and they are closed by pressure. Job is to keep blood from
going back into the atria
a. aorta SL valve: between left ventricle and aorta
b. pulmonary SL valve: between right ventricle and pulmonary artery
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Pathway of blood
1. right atrium – receive blood from body
a. three vessels lead to the right atrium
i. superior vena cava (blood from above the diaphragm)
ii. inferior vena cava (blood from below the diaphragm)
iii. coronary sinus (all blood from heart)
2. tricuspid valve
3. right ventricle – pump/discharge blood toward the lung to become oxygenated
4. pulmonary SL valve
5. pulmonary artery
6. lung – pick up 02, dispose CO2
7. pulmonary vein
8. left atrium
9. bicuspid valve
10. left ventricle – discharge blood to the body
11. aortic SL valve
12. aorta
13. Small arteries
14. capillary - body tissue
15. veins
16. vena cava
Anatomical Differences in Left and Right
-
size: the left side is bigger, thicker, pumps farther and works harder than the right.
Both pump at the same time and the same amount
Right sided failure
- blood accumulates in the tissue which leads to edema
Left sided failure
- blood accumulates in the lungs which leads to pulmonary edema
Blood Pressure: the force of blood against the vessel wall (mmHg)
Cardiac Cycle
- diastole = heart relaxing
- systole = heart contracting
Hypertension: high blood pressure (above 140/90)
- caused by: stress, weight, drugs, diet, genetics
hypotension: low blood pressure (below 90/50)
- caused by: thyroid disease, hormonal disease
Heart Sounds = lub-dub
Do to closing of the valves
1st sound – lub = both of the AV valves closing
2nd sound – dub = both of the SL valves closing
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Electrocardiogram (ECG/EKG)
- graphical recording of the electrical activity of the heart
P wave: atrial contraction
QRS wave: ventricular contraction
T wave: ventricular relaxing
Q-T interval: ventricle contraction
Fibrillation: rapid and irregular, out of phase contraction
Arial Fibrillation
Ventricular Fibrillation
Terminology
-
cardiac output: amount of blood pumped from ventricle in one minute
o CO = stroke volume x heart rate
stroke volume: amount of blood pumped in one beat
heart rate: number of beats in one minute
tachycardia: abnormally high heart rate (greater than 100 beats/minute)
o caused by: drugs/caffeine, disease, hyperthyrodism, stress, temperature
bradycardia: abnormally slow heart rate (less than 60 beats/minute at rest)
o caused by: drugs, disease, over activated PNS, temperature
So if you stand on your head what happens to your heart rate?
- it decreases because the body wants to keep the CO the same. The body needs to decrease the
heart rate to balance the increased stroke volume to keep a normal cardiac output
Circulatory shock: any condition in which blood vessels are inadequately filled – no longer
have full circulation
1. hypovolemic shock: low blood volume (hemorrhage)
2. vascular/neurgenic shock: not due to blood loss, extreme vasodilatation – greater
amount of blood in veins
3. cardiogenic shock: heart pump failure, inadequate filling of circulatory system
Blood
Functions of blood
- transport/distribution
- regulation: body temperature, maintain pH, volume
- protection: clotting, preventing blood loss, protect against infection
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components of blood




plasma: a straw-colored, clear liquid that is 90 percent water.
Plasma also contains dissolved salts and minerals like calcium,
sodium, magnesium, and potassium. Microbe-fighting antibodies
travel by hitching a ride in the plasma. Without plasma, the lifegiving blood cells would be left floundering without
transportation
platelets: an irregularly-shaped, colorless body that are
present in blood. Their sticky surface lets them, along with other
substances, form clots to stop bleeding.
White blood cells: also known as leukocytes, are cells of the
immune system defending the body against both infectious
disease and foreign materials. The white blood cells have a
rather short life cycle, living from a few days to a few weeks
Red blood cells: the most common type of blood cell and the
principal means of delivering oxygen from the lungs body tissues
via the blood.The average life cycle of a red blood cell is 120
days.
Blood Typing
Antigens: substance/protein that are recognized by the immune system a “nametag”
Antibodies: proteins released by the immune system to identify things that are foreign
Antigen Antibody
A
A
B
B
B
A
AB
AB
none
O
None
AB
Universal donor: O
Universal recipient: AB
Rh: if you have the Rh antigen = + blood type, if antigen is negative = - blood type
Disorders and Disease
-
-
Cardiovascular disease (heart disease): includes dysfunctional conditions of the
heart, arteries, and veins that supply oxygen to vital life-sustaining areas of the body like
the brain, the heart itself, and other vital organs. If oxygen doesn't arrive the tissue or
organ will die.
Coronary artery disease: is the end result of the accumulation of plaque within the
walls of the arteries that supply the heart with oxygen and nutrients
Atherosclerosis: the process in which deposits of fatty substances, cholesterol, cellular
waste products, calcium and other substances build up in the inner lining of an artery.
This buildup is called plaque
Arteriosclerosis: a general term for the thickening and hardening of arteries
Angina pectoris: term for chest pain or discomfort due to coronary heart disease.
Congenital heart disease: Any heart condition or abnormality that a person was born
with
Leukemia: is a cancer of the blood or bone marrow and is characterized by an abnormal
proliferation of blood cells, usually white blood cells
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-
Hemophilia: is a rare, inherited bleeding disorder in which your blood doesn’t clot
normally.
Rheumatic Fever: is an inflammatory disease which may develop after a Group A
streptococcal infection (such as strep throat or scarlet fever) and can involve the heart,
joints, skin, and brain. It is responsible for many cases of damaged heart valves.
hemorrhagic stroke: occurs when a blood vessel within the brain bursts. The most
likely cause is uncontrolled hypertension.
Arrhythmia: This is an abnormal rhythm of the heart
ischemic stroke: (the most common type) happens when a blood vessel that feeds the
brain gets blocked, usually from a blood clot.
hemorrhagic stroke: occurs when a blood vessel within the brain bursts. The most
likely cause is uncontrolled hypertension.
heart attack: Sudden death of a portion of the heart muscle caused by a sudden
decrease in blood supply to that area. Also known as myocardial infarction or MI
Atrial fibrillation: Rapid, uneven contractions in the upper heart chambers (atria),
which cause the lower chambers (ventricles) to beat irregularly
Congestive heart failure: A common form of heart failure that results in a patient
retaining excessive fluid, often leading to swelling of the legs and ankles and
congestion in the lungs.
Anemia: A reduction in the amount of oxygen-carrying red blood cells. Anemia can have
many causes, but the most common is a lack of iron in the body.
Related Organs
-
-
-
Spleen: located in the abdomen of the body, where it functions in the destruction of
redundant red blood cells and holds a reservoir of blood. It also removes unwanted
materials from the blood, including old red blood cells and helps fight infections.
Kidney: primary role is to maintain the homeostatic balance of bodily fluids by filtering
and secreting metabolites and minerals from the blood and excreting them, along with
water, as urine. The kidneys are located in the posterior part of the abdomen. There is
one on each side of the spine; the right kidney sits just below the liver, the left below the
diaphragm and adjacent to the spleen.
Liver: necessary for survival; a human can only last up to 24 hours without liver
function. It plays a major role in metabolism and has a number of functions in the body,
including glycogen storage, decomposition of red blood cells, plasma protein synthesis,
and detoxification. It lies below the diaphragm in the thoracic region of the abdomen.
Bone Marrow: the flexible tissue found in the hollow interior of bones. In adults,
marrow in large bones produces new blood cells.
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Chapter 2
Lymphatic System
The lymphatic system is considered part of the circulatory system because it consists of a moving
fluid (derived from the blood) and group of vessels (which returns the fluid to the blood). Lymph
is called interstitial fluid and it nourishes the body tissue. The lymphatic system is also part of the
body’s defense system. Foreign matter is filtered out in the tissue of lymph nodes.
Lymph: a watery clear liquid composed of interstitial fluid (a solution, which surrounds cells) and
other particles found in the area between the cells. Normally, fluid is forced out of capillaries at
the arterial end and reabsorbed at the venous end. However, not all the fluid which forced out is
reabsorbed. This excess fluid is returned to the circulatory system by lymphatic vessels as lymph.
How long could a person live without the lymphatic system?
- they would die within one day - If the lymphatic system didn't drain the excess fluid from
the tissues, the lymph fluid would build up in the body's tissues, and they would swell,
causing death
Lymphocytes: a type of white blood cell. Some lymphocytes make antibodies, special proteins
that fight off germs and stop infections from spreading by trapping disease-causing germs and
destroying them
Lymph Node: clean fluid before going back into the system. When a person has an infection,
germs collect in the lymph nodes. If the throat is infected, for example, the lymph nodes of the
neck may swell. That's why doctors check for swollen lymph glands in the neck when your
throat is infected.
Anatomy of a node: Lymph nodes are round or kidney-shaped, and can be up to 1 inch in
diameter. Most of the lymph nodes are found in clusters in the neck, armpit, and groin area.
Nodes are also located along the lymphatic pathways in the chest, abdomen, and pelvis,
where they filter the blood. Inside the lymph nodes, lymphocytes called T-cells and B-cells help
the body fight infection. Lymphatic tissue is also scattered throughout the body in different major
organs and in and around the gastrointestinal tract.
Functions of a node:
1. It is responsible for the removal of interstitial fluid from tissues.
2. It absorbs and transports fatty acids and fats as chyle (pronounced Kil) to the
circulatory system.
3. production of immune cells, such as lymphocytes, including antibody producing plasma
cells and monocytes.
Lymphoma: a disease in which malignant lymphocytes grow too fast or live too long. These
cells may then accumulate in the lymph nodes or other areas of the lymphatic system to form
tumors.
lymph vessels: are thin walled, valved structures that carry lymph. Lymph vessels act as a
reservoir from plasma and other substances including cells that leaked from the vascular system
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and transport lymph fluid back from the tissues to the circulatory system. Without functioning
lymph vessels, lymph cannot be effectively drained and edema typically results.
Edema: swelling or puffiness of parts of the body. It is caused by water that gets trapped in
the tissues of your body. Edema usually happens in the feet, ankles and legs. It also can affect
the face and hands. It is the increase of interstitial fluid in any organ — swelling.
Lymphatic organs:
1. spleen: breakdown/destroy RBC
2. thymus: T cell maturation
3. lymph node: filter lymph, clean fluid before going back into system
4. tonsils: filter/clean the air that comes in
5. malt: mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue, (what the appendix is made of) cleans and
filtered fluid
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Chapter 3
Respiratory System
The respiratory system provides for the intake and output of air and makes it possible of the
exchange of gases between the blood and air.
Functions: supply oxygen to the body, eliminate carbon dioxide from the body, helps
regulate the bodies acid-base balance
Air moves through the body in the following order
1. Nasal cavity
2. Pharynx
3. Larynx (voice box)
4. Trachea (wind pipe)
5. Thoracic cavity (chest)
6. Bronchi (right and left)
7. Alveoli (site of gas exchange)
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Ventilation of the lungs is carried out by the muscles of respiration.
Inspiration: the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles contract. The diaphragm moves
downwards increasing the volume of the thoracic (chest) cavity, and the intercostal muscles
pull the ribs up expanding the rib cage and further increasing this volume. This increase of
volume lowers the air pressure in the alveoli to below atmospheric pressure. Because air always
flows from a region of high pressure to a region of lower pressure, it rushes in through the
respiratory tract and into the alveoli.
Expiration: the diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax. This returns the thoracic cavity to
it's original volume, increasing the air pressure in the lungs, and forcing the air out.
Lungs: the main organs of the respiratory system, oxygen is taken into the body and carbon
dioxide is breathed out. The red blood cells are responsible for picking up the oxygen in the lungs
and carrying the oxygen to all the body cells that need it. The red blood cells drop off the oxygen
to the body cells, then pick up the carbon dioxide which is a waste gas product produced by our
cells. The red blood cells transport the carbon dioxide back to the lungs and we breathe it out
when we exhale.
Trachea: sometimes called the windpipe, it filters the air we breathe and branches into the
bronchi.
Bronchi: two air tubes that branch off of the trachea and carry air directly into the lungs.
Diaphragm: a dome-shaped
muscle at the bottom of the
lungs. When you breathe in, the
diaphragm contracts. When it
contracts it flattens out and pulls
downward. This movement
enlarges the space that the lungs
are in. This larger space pulls air
into the lungs. When you breathe
out, the diaphragm expands
reducing the amount of space for
the lungs and forcing air out. The
diaphragm is the main muscle
used in breathing.
Why Do I Yawn?
- When you are sleepy or drowsy
the lungs do not take enough
oxygen from the air. This causes
a shortage of oxygen in our
bodies. The brain senses this
shortage of oxygen and sends a
message that causes you to take
a deep long breath
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Why Do I Sneeze?
- Sneezing is like a cough in the upper breathing
passages. It is the body's way of removing an
irritant from the sensitive mucous membranes of the
nose. Many things can irritate the mucous
membranes. Dust, pollen, pepper or even a cold
blast of air are just some of the many things that
may cause you to sneeze.
Asthma: Asthma is a chronic inflammatory lung
disease that causes airways to tighten and
narrow. Often triggered by irritants in the air such as cigarette smoke, asthma flares involve
contraction and swelling of the muscles lining the tiny airways. The resulting narrowing of the
airways prevents air from flowing properly, causing wheezing and difficulty breathing, sometimes
to the point of being life-threatening.
Bronchiolitis: Not to be confused with bronchitis, bronchiolitis is an inflammation of the
bronchioles, the smallest branches of the bronchial tree. Bronchiolitis affects mostly infants and
young children, and can cause wheezing and serious difficulty breathing.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD): a term that describes two lung diseases
— emphysema and chronic bronchitis
Emphysema: often caused by long-term smoking. The lungs produce an excessive amount of
mucus and the alveoli become damaged. It becomes difficult to breathe and get enough
oxygen into the blood.
Tuberculosis: a bacterial infection caused by a germ called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The
bacteria usually attack the lungs, but they can also damage other parts of the body. TB spreads
through the air when a person with TB of the lungs or throat coughs, sneezes or talks.
Bronchitis: a common disease of adults and adolescents, the membranes lining the larger
bronchial tubes become inflamed and an excessive amount of mucus is produced. The person
develops a bad cough to get rid of the mucus. Cigarette smoking is a major cause of chronic
bronchitis in teens.
Common cold: Caused by over 200 different viruses that cause inflammation in the upper
respiratory tract, the common cold is the most common respiratory infection. Symptoms may
include a mild fever, cough, headache, runny nose, sneezing, and sore throat.
Cough: a symptom of an illness, not an illness itself. There are many different types of cough
and many different causes, ranging from not-so-serious to life-threatening.
Cystic fibrosis: the most common inherited disease affecting the lungs. Affecting primarily the
respiratory and digestive systems, CF causes mucus in the body to be abnormally thick and
sticky. The mucus can clog the airways in the lungs and make a person more vulnerable to
bacterial infections.
Lung cancer: Caused by an abnormal growth of cells in the lungs, lung cancer is a leading
cause of death in the United States and is usually caused by smoking cigarettes. It starts in the
lining of the bronchi and takes a long time to develop. Symptoms include a persistent cough that
may bring up blood, chest pain, hoarseness, and shortness of breath.
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Pneumonia: This inflammation of the lungs usually occurs because of bacterial or viral
infection. Pneumonia causes fever and inflammation of lung tissue, and makes breathing difficult
because the lungs have to work harder to transfer oxygen into the bloodstream and remove
carbon dioxide from the blood
Pulmonary hypertension: This condition occurs when the blood pressure in the arteries of the
lungs is abnormally high, which means the heart has to work harder to pump blood against the
high pressure.
Intercostal muscles: Thin sheets of muscle between each rib that expand (when air is
inhaled) and contract (when air is exhaled).
Lungs: The two organs that extract oxygen from inhaled air and expel carbon dioxide in exhaled
air. The lungs have separate lobes. The left side has two lobes and the right side has three.
Nasal cavity: Interior area of the nose; lined with a sticky mucous membrane and contains
tiny, surface hairs called cilia.
Nose hairs: Located at the entrance of the nose, these hairs trap large particles that are
inhaled.
Pharynx: The throat.
Pleural membrane: Covering the lung and lining the chest cavity, this membrane has 2 thin
layers.
Pulmonary vessels: Pulmonary arteries carry deoxygenated blood from the heart and lungs;
pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood back to the heart.
Respiratory center: Area of the brain that controls breathing.
Ribs: Bones attached to the spine and central portion of the breastbone, which support the
chest wall and protect the heart, lungs, and other organs in the chest.
Sinuses: hollow spaces in the bones of the head. Small openings connect them to the nasal
cavity. The functions they serve are not clearly understood, but include helping to regulate the
temperature and humidity of air breathed in, as well as to lighten the bone structure of the head
and to give resonance to the voice.
Adenoids: are overgrown lymph tissue at the top of the throat. When they interfere with
breathing, they are generally removed..
Epiglottis: is a flap of tissue that guards the entrance to the trachea, closing when anything is
swallowed that should go into the esophagus and stomach.
Larynx: (voice box) contains the vocal cords. It is the place where moving air being breathed
in and out creates voice sounds.
Esophagus: is the passage leading from the mouth and throat to the stomach.
Trachea: (windpipe) is the passage leading from the pharynx to the lungs.
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Ribs: are bones supporting and protecting the chest cavity. They move to a limited degree,
helping the lungs to expand and contract.
Pleura: are the two membranes, that surround each lobe of the lungs and separate the lungs
from the chest wall.
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Chapter 4
Digestive System
alimentary canal: (also called the digestive tract) is the long tube of organs — including the
esophagus, stomach, and intestines — that runs from the mouth to the anus. An adult's
digestive tract is about 30 feet (about 9 meters) long.
salivary glands: begin producing saliva when we see, smell, taste, or even imagine a tasty
meal. They are located under the tongue and near the lower jaw. This flow of saliva is set in
motion by a brain reflex that's triggered when we sense food or think about eating. In response
to this sensory stimulation, the brain sends impulses through the nerves that control the salivary
glands, telling them to prepare for a meal.
Amylase: A digestive enzyme, which is found in saliva, starts to break down some of the
carbohydrates (starches and sugars) in the food before it leaves the mouth.
Swallowing: muscle movements in the tongue and mouth, moves the food into the throat.
Peristalsis: Waves of muscle contractions force food down through the esophagus to the
stomach.
Sphincter: At the end of the esophagus, a muscular ring or valve allows food to enter the
stomach and then squeezes shut to keep food or fluid from flowing back up into the esophagus.
Small Intestine:
The small intestine is made up of three parts:
1. the duodenum, the C-shaped first part
2. the jejunum, the coiled midsection
3. the ileum, the final section that leads into the large intestine
villi: The inner wall of the small intestine is covered with millions of microscopic, finger-like
projections. They are the vehicles through which nutrients can be absorbed into the body.
Liver: produces bile, which helps the body absorb fat, handling and processing of nutrients,
which are carried to the liver in the blood from the small intestine.
Gallbladder: where bile is stored until it is needed.
Pancreas: produces enzymes that help digest proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. It also makes
a substance that neutralizes stomach acid. These enzymes and bile travel through special
channels (called ducts) directly into the small intestine, where they help to break down food.
Large Intestine:
The large intestine is made up of these three parts:
1. cecum: a pouch at the beginning of the large intestine that joins the small intestine to
the large intestine. This transition area expands in diameter, allowing food to travel from
the small intestine to the large.
2. appendix: a small, hollow, finger-like pouch, hangs at the end of the cecum. Doctors
believe the appendix is left over from a previous time in human evolution. It no longer
appears to be useful to the digestive process.
3. colon: extends from the cecum up the right side of the abdomen, across the upper
abdomen, and then down the left side of the abdomen, finally connecting to the rectum.
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The colon has three parts: the ascending colon; the transverse colon, which absorb fluids
and salts; and the descending colon, which holds the resulting waste. Bacteria in the
colon help to digest the remaining food products.
Rectum: is where feces are stored until they leave the digestive system through the anus as a
bowel movement.
Diarrhea: muscle contractions move the contents of the intestines along too quickly and there
isn't enough time for water to be absorbed before the feces are pushed out of the body.
Constipation: The contents of the large intestines do not move along fast enough and waste
materials stay in the large intestine so long that too much water is removed and the feces
become hard.
Appendicitis: inflammation of the appendix, most often affects kids and teens between 11 and
25 years old, and requires surgery to correct. The classic symptoms of appendicitis are abdominal
pain, fever, loss of appetite, and vomiting.
Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD): is chronic inflammation of the intestines that affects
older kids, teens, and adults.
1. ulcerative colitis, which usually affects just the rectum and the large intestine
2. Crohn's disease, which can affect the whole gastrointestinal tract from the mouth to the
anus as well as other parts of the body.
Celiac disease: digestive system is damaged by the response of the immune system to a
protein called gluten, which is found in wheat, rye, and barley and a wide range of foods, from
breakfast cereal to pizza crust. People with celiac disease have difficulty digesting the nutrients
from their food and may experience diarrhea, abdominal pain, bloating, exhaustion, and
depression when they eat foods with gluten. Symptoms can be managed by following a glutenfree diet.
Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS): a common intestinal disorder, affects the colon and may
cause recurrent abdominal cramps, bloating, constipation, and diarrhea. There is no cure, but IBS
symptoms may be treated by changing eating habits, reducing stress, and making lifestyle
changes.
Cystic fibrosis: is a chronic, inherited illness where the production of abnormally thick mucus
blocks the ducts or passageways in the pancreas and prevents its digestive juices from entering
the intestines, making it difficult to properly digest proteins and fats. This causes important
nutrients to pass out of the body unused.
Hepatitis: a condition with many different causes, is when the liver becomes inflamed and may
lose its ability to function. Viral hepatitis, such as hepatitis A, B, or C, is highly contagious.
Cholecystitis: gallbladder can develop gallstones and become inflamed, uncommon in kids
and teens, they can occur in those who have sickle cell anemia or are being treated with certain
long-term medications.
Digestion: is the breaking down of food in the body, into a form that can be absorbed and
used or excreted.
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Digestion is separated into four separate processes:
1. Ingestion: placing food into the mouth
2. Mechanical digestion & chemical digestion
3. Absorption: movement of nutrients from the digestive system to the circulatory and
lymphatic capillaries through osmosis, active transport, and diffusion
4. Egestion: Removal of undigested materials from the digestive tract through defecation
Mastication: to tear and crush food, and churning of the stomach.
Anus: the opening at the end of the digestive system from which feces (waste) exits the body.
bile: a digestive chemical that is produced in the liver, stored in the gall bladder, and secreted
into the small intestine.
chyme: food in the stomach that is partly digested and mixed with stomach acids. Chyme goes
on to the small intestine for further digestion.
ileum: the last part of the small intestine before the large intestine begins.
jejunum: the long, coiled mid-section of the small intestine; it is between the duodenum and
the ileum.
liver: a large organ located above and in front of the stomach. It filters toxins from the blood,
and makes bile (which breaks down fats) and some blood proteins.
mouth: the first part of the digestive system, where food enters the body. Chewing and salivary
enzymes in the mouth are the beginning of the digestive process (breaking down the food).
pancreas: an enzyme-producing gland located below the stomach and above the intestines.
Enzymes from the pancreas help in the digestion of carbohydrates, fats and proteins in the small
intestine. Also produces insulin to break down sugar.
rectum: the lower part of the large intestine, where feces are stored before they are excreted.
stomach: a sack-like, muscular organ that is attached to the esophagus. Both chemical and
mechanical digestion takes place in the stomach. When food enters the stomach, it is churned
in a bath of acids and enzymes.
21
Diseases and Disorders
Cleft palate: a treatable birth defect in which the roof of the mouth (palate) does not develop
normally during pregnancy, leaving an opening (cleft) that may go through to the nasal cavity
Mumps: a contagious viral infection that can cause painful swelling of the salivary glands,
especially the parotid glands, between the ear and the jaw.
Pernicious anemia: a decrease in red blood cells that occurs when the body cannot properly
absorb vitamin B12 from the gastrointestinal tract. Vitamin B12 is necessary for the formation of
red blood cells.
Hemorrhoids: swollen veins in the anal canal. This common problem can be painful, but it’s
usually not serious.
Jaundice: a condition that makes a person’s skin and the white part of the eyes look yellow. It
happens because there is too much bilirubin in the blood (hyperbilirubinemia). Bilirubin is a
substance that is made when the body breaks down old red blood cells. It usually indicates a
problem with the liver.
Type 1 diabetes: a disease that develops when the pancreas stops making insulin. Your body
needs insulin to break down sugar (glucose) move from the blood into the body's cells, where it
can be used for energy or stored for later use. This type requires injections of insulin.
Type 2 diabetes: a disease that happens when the cells of the body can't use insulin the right
way or when the pancreas can't make enough insulin. Insulin lets blood sugar—also called
glucose—enter the body’s cells to be used for energy. When insulin is not able to do its job, the
cells can't get the sugar they need, and too much sugar builds up in the blood. Over time, this
extra sugar in the blood can damage your eyes, heart, blood vessels, nerves, and kidneys. This
type can usually be controlled by changes in diet, exercise, and other medications.
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Chapter 5
Endocrine System
The endocrine system consists of glands which secrete hormones into the blood. These
secretions are essential for regulation of many vital body functions such as growth, metabolism,
maintaining fluid balance, etc.
Thyroid: a small gland, shaped like a butterfly, located in the lower part of the neck. The
function of a gland is to secrete hormones. The main hormones released are triiodothyronine
(T3) and thyroxine (T4). These thyroid hormones deliver energy to cells of the body.
Thyroid Nodules: Lumps in the thyroid gland.
Parathyroid glands: small glands of the endocrine system which are located in the neck
behind the thyroid. There are four parathyroid glands which are normally the size and shape of a
grain of rice. The ONLY purpose s is to regulate the calcium level in our bodies within a very
narrow range so that the nervous and muscular systems can function properly
Adrenal glands: the triangle-shaped endocrine glands that sit on top of the kidneys. They are
responsible for regulating the stress response through the synthesis of corticosteroids and
catecholamines, including cortisol and adrenaline
Pituitary gland: sometimes called the "master" gland of the endocrine system, because it
controls the functions of the other endocrine glands. The pituitary gland is no larger than a pea,
and is located at the base of the brain.
Pancreas: a gland organ in the digestive and endocrine system of vertebrates. It is both
exocrine (secreting pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes) and endocrine (producing
several important hormones, including insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin).
Diseases and Disorders
Hypothyroidism: An underactive thyroid. Symptoms usually go along with a slowdown in
metabolism, and can include fatigue, weight gain, and depression, among others.
Hyperthyroidism: An overactive thyroid. Symptoms include Goiter, an enlargement of the
thyroid, with symptoms that can include a visibly larger neck, Weight Changes, Pregnancy
Problems, Temperature Problems, Heart and Blood Pressure Changes, Gastrointestinal Problems,
and problems with energy, muscles and joints
Goiter: An enlarged thyroid.
Thyroid Cancer: Malignant thyroid nodules or tissue.
Thyroiditis: Inflammation of the thyroid.
23
Cretinism: congenital condition caused by a deficiency of thyroid hormone during prenatal
development and characterized in childhood by dwarfed stature, mental retardation, dystrophy of
the bones, and a low basal metabolism.
Giantism: excessive size; usually caused by excessive secretion of growth hormone from the
pituitary gland
Dwarfism: a result of growth hormone deficiency. The deficiency may be genetic or the result of
a severe brain injury. When untreated, skeletal growth is extremely slow, and puberty may or
may not occur. Development can be normalized with the regular administration of synthetic
hormones.
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Chapter 6
Urinary System
The primary function of the urinary system is to carry metabolic wastes from the body in the
form of urine. It also regulates the chemical composition of the blood; regulates the fluid and
electrolyte balance and volume; helps to maintain the acid-base balance of the body.
Kidney: are two bean-shaped organs, each about the size of a fist. They are located in the
middle of the back, just below the rib cage, on either side of the spine. The kidneys receive the
blood from the renal artery, process it, return the processed blood to the body through the renal
vein and remove the wastes and other unwanted substances in the urine
- Functions:
1. Regulate the composition of your blood
2. keep the concentrations of various ions and other important substances
constant
3. keep the volume of water in your body constant
4. remove wastes from your body (urea, ammonia, drugs, toxic substances)
5. keep the acid/base concentration of your blood constant
6. Help regulate your blood pressure
7. Stimulate the making of red blood cells
8. Maintain your body's calcium levels
Ureter: A tube that carries urine down from the kidney to the bladder. There are normally two
kidneys so there are accordingly two ureters under normal circumstances, one ureter coming
from each kidney conveying urine to the bladder.
urinary bladder: a muscular sac located in the pelvis that stores urine and contracts to expel it
from the body. The bladder of the adult human can hold over a pint (0.6 liters) of urine. When
the level of urine reaches about half this amount, pressure of the accumulating fluid stimulates
nervous impulses that relax the external sphincter, a muscle that forms a dense band around the
urethra at the base of the bladder. This muscle can be controlled voluntarily. The muscles in the
wall of the bladder also contract, forcing urine out through the urethra.
uretha: A tube through which urine moves from the urinary bladder out of the body. In the
male, the urethra also acts as the passageway for semen.
Diseases and Disorders
Cystitis: inflammation of the urinary bladder. The condition more often affects women, but
can affect either gender and all age groups. It occurs when the normally sterile lower urinary
tract (urethra and bladder) is infected by bacteria and becomes irritated and inflamed. It is rare
in males. Females are more prone to the development of cystitis because of their relatively
shorter urethra—bacteria do not have to travel as far to enter the bladder—and because of the
relatively short distance between the opening of the urethra and the anus.
Kidney stones: also called renal calculi, are solid concretions (crystal aggregations) of
dissolved minerals in urine; calculi typically form inside the kidneys or bladder. Renal calculi can
vary in size from as small as grains of sand to as large as a golf ball. Kidney stones typically
leave the body by passage in the urine stream, and many stones are formed and passed without
causing symptoms. If stones grow to sufficient size before passage they can cause obstruction of
the ureter.
25
Enuresis: the inability to maintain urinary control during sleep. Primary enuresis refers to
inability to maintain urinary control from infancy. Secondary enuresis is a relapse after control
has been achieved. causes by medical disorders like diabetes, urinary tract infection, sleep apnea
or epilepsy. Psychiactric disorders can also be a cause
Kidney failure: also called renal failure. healthy kidneys clean your blood by removing excess
fluid, minerals and wastes. They also make hormones that keep your bones strong and your
blood healthy. But if the kidneys are damaged, they don't work properly. Harmful wastes can
build up in the body. Blood pressure may rise, the body may retain excess fluid and not make
enough red blood cells. This is called kidney failure. If kidneys fail, a treatment is needed to
replace the work they normally do. The treatment options are dialysis or a kidney transplant
Urinary tract infections (UTIs): caused by bacteria in the urinary tract. Women get UTIs
more often than men. UTIs are treated with antibiotics. Drinking lots of fluids also helps by
flushing out the bacteria.
Urinary incontinence: the loss of bladder control, is the involuntary passage of urine. There
are many causes and types of incontinence, and many treatment options. Treatments range from
simple exercises to surgery. Women are affected by urinary incontinence more often than men.
Urinary retention, or bladder-emptying problems, is a common urological problem with many
possible causes. Normally, urination can be initiated voluntarily and the bladder empties
completely. Urinary retention is the abnormal holding of urine in the bladder. In males can be
caused by an enlarged prostate gland.
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Chapter 7
Reproductive System
The function of the reproductive system requires a number of complex and essential processes
which must all be properly working in order for the miracle of reproduction to take place.
Gonads: the primary sex organs, produce gametes (sex cells) and sex hormones
Male: testes, produce sperm and testosterone
Female: ovary, produce oocyte and estrogen/progesterone
Female Reproductive system:
Ovaries: there are two ovaries, one on each side of the peritoneal cavity (pelvic cavity), just
above the brim of the pelvis. Each is close to the open, fringed end of a Fallopian tube, leading to
the uterus which lies between and below them.
Fallopian tube: either of a pair of slender ducts through which ova pass from the ovaries to
the uterus. They extend from the ovary to the uterus and transports ova from the ovary to the
cavity of the uterus. Each tube is about 5 in. long; one lies on either side of the uterus and is
attached at the upper portion.
Ovum: The female reproductive cell. It remains viable in the oviduct for about 1–3 days. If
fertilization occurs, the ovum moves into the cavity of the uterus and then implants on its wall.
If fertilization fails to occur, the ovum degenerates in the uterus.
Ectopic pregnancy: the fertilized egg implants in a location outside the uterus and tries to
develop there. The word ectopic means "in an abnormal place or position." The most common
site is the fallopian tube. However, ectopic pregnancy can also occur in the ovary, the abdomen,
and the cervical canal. This is can be a serious and life-threatening condition.
Uterus: A hollow muscular organ located in the pelvic cavity of female mammals in which the
fertilized egg implants and develops. Also called womb. It is shaped like an upside-down pear
and it is tilted forwards. It lies within the pelvis and is held in place, along with its two
extensions, the Fallopian tubes, by ligaments and folds of the peritoneum. The cervix forms the
lower third, connected by a narrow isthmus to the main muscular body of the uterus. The nonpregnant uterus weighs 45-60 g and is 7-8 cm long but its weight increases more than ten-fold
by the end of pregnancy.
Three major functions of the uterus:
1. to prepare a bed for a fertilized ovum
2. to nourish the developing embryo during pregnancy
3. expel (deliver) the fetus
Vagina: The passage leading from the opening of the vulva to the cervix of the uterus.
Together with the cavity of the uterus, it forms the birth canal.
Menstruation: Periodic sloughing of the uterine lining in women of reproductive age.
Menstrual bleeding indicates the first day of the menstrual cycle. There is no menstrual bleeding
during pregnancy, as the uterine mucosa is needed for the maintenance of pregnancy.
Vulva: The external genital organs of the female, including the labia majora, labia minora,
clitoris, and vestibule of the vagina.
27
Clitoris: A small elongated erectile organ at the anterior part of the vulva, homologous with the
penis.
Infundibulum: the ovarian opening of a fallopian tube.
Endometrium: The glandular mucous membrane that lines the uterus.
Endometriosis: a condition in which bits of the tissue similar to the lining of the uterus
(endometrium) grow in other parts of the body. Like the uterine lining, this tissue builds up and
sheds in response to monthly hormonal cycles. However, there is no natural outlet for the blood
discarded from these implants. Instead, it falls onto surrounding organs, causing swelling and
inflammation, pain and dysmenorrhea,
Ovum: (plural ova) is a mature egg released at ovulation. In humans only one egg is normally
shed, from one of the ovaries, about 14 days after the start of each 28-day menstrual cycle.
Diseases and Disorders
Menopause: represents the end of menstruation. While technically it refers to the final period,
it is not an abrupt event, but a gradual process. Menopause is not a disease that needs to be
cured, but a natural life-stage transition.
Infertility: the failure to conceive after trying to do so for at least one full year. In primary
infertility, pregnancy has never occurred. In secondary infertility, one or both members of the
couple have previously conceived, but are unable to conceive again after a full year of trying.
Dysmenorrhea: the occurrence of painful cramps during menstruation.
Amenorrhea: the absence of menstrual periods
1. Primary amenorrhea is the failure to start having a period by the age of 16.
2. Secondary amenorrhea is more common and refers to either the temporary or
permanent ending of periods in a woman who has menstruated normally in the past.
Many women miss a period occasionally. Amenorrhea occurs if a woman misses three or
more periods in a row.
Male Reproductive system:
Penis: the organ of the male reproductive system through which semen passes out of the body
during sexual intercourse. The penis is also an organ of urination.
Scrotum: a superficial skin that holds the testes. It controls the temperature of the testes. In
order to be viable, semen must be 3 degrees C lower than the body temperature. When it is cold
outside the muscle contract, pulling the testes closer to the body, when hot outside the muscles
relax, allowing the testes to hang farther away.
Testes: The two organs in the male reproductive system that produce sperm and
testosterone. They are oval-shaped, about 1.5 – 2 in. (4 – 5 cm) long that are contained in a
sac (scrotum) behind the penis. The cells in the testes are undeveloped in early childhood; at
puberty they are stimulated by hormones to develop into fertile sperm cells.
Seminiforus tubules: located in the testes, the site of sperm production
28
Interstitial cells: located in the testes, produce testosterone
Seminal vesicle: They secrete a significant proportion of the fluid that ultimately becomes
semen. About 70% of the seminal fluid originates from the seminal vesicles. Adds nutrient fluid
to semen during ejaculation.
Prostate Gland: The gland surrounding the urinary passage at the exit of the male bladder.
The function of the prostate is to secrete fluid which together with secretions from the seminal
vesicles makes up most of the volume of the seminal fluid. Most men remain unaware of their
prostate until late middle age when enlargement interferes with urination by constricting the
urethra and reducing urine flow.
Cowper's gland: Gland that discharges a component of seminal fluid into the urethra that acts
as a lubricant. Also known as bulbourethral gland.
Duct System: deliver sperm from sight of production to outside
1. epididymis
a. store sperm until usage
b. mature sperm – gain ability to swim
c. ejaculation: smooth muscle contracting that will propel sperm forward through
duct system
2. vas deferens
a. epididymis to ejaculatory duct
3. ejaculatory duct
a. combines with sperm
4. urethra
a. conveys both semen and urine
Diseases and Disorders
Erectile dysfunction: The inability to achieve penile erection or to maintain an erection until
ejaculation. Also called impotence.
Undescended testes: In the fetus, the testes are in the abdomen. As development
progresses, they migrate downward through the groin and into the scrotum. This event takes
place late in fetal development, during the eighth month of gestation. In some newborn boys the
testes are not present in the scrotum, either because the testes did not descend or because the
testes never developed in the fetus.
Sexually transmitted disease (STD)/Sexually transmitted infection (STI)
Any of various diseases that are usually contracted through sexual intercourse or other intimate
sexual contact. STDs can have very painful long-term consequences as well as immediate health
problems. They can cause:
- birth defects
- blindness
- bone deformities
- brain damage
- cancer
- heart disease
- infertility and other abnormalities of the reproductive system
- mental retardation
29
Chlamydia: Caused by the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis, a microscopic organism that
lives as a parasite inside human cells. Although over 526,000 cases of chlamydia were reported in
the United States in 1997, the CDC estimates that nearly three million cases occur annually
because 75% of women and 50% of men show no symptoms of the disease after infection.
Approximately 40% of women will develop pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) as a result of
chlamydia infection, a leading cause of infertility.
Human papillomavirus (HPV): HPV causes genital warts and is the single most important
risk factor for cervical cancer in women. Over 100 types of HPV exist, but only about 30 of them
can cause genital warts and are spread through sexual contact. In some instances, warts are
passed from mother to child during childbirth, leading to a potentially life-threatening condition
for newborns in which warts develop in the throat (laryngeal papillomatosis).
Genital herpes: Herpes is an incurable viral infection. It is caused by one of two types of
herpes simplex viruses: HSV-1 (commonly causing oral herpes) or HSV-2 (usually causing genital
herpes). The CDC estimates that 45 million Americans (one out of every five individuals 12 years
of age or older) are infected with HSV-2; this number has increased 30% since the 1970s. HSV-2
infection is more common in women (one out of every four women) than men (one out of every
five men) and in African Americans (45.9%) than Caucasians (17.6%).
Gonorrhea: The bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae is the causative agent of gonorrhea and can
be spread by vaginal, oral, or anal contact. The CDC reports that approximately 650,000
individuals are infected with gonorrhea each year in the United States, with 132.2 infections per
100,000 individuals occurring in 1999. Approximately 75% of American gonorrhea infections
occur in persons aged 15 to 29 years old. In 1999, 75% of reported gonorrhea cases occurred
among African Americans.
Syphilis: A potentially life-threatening bacterial infection that increases the likelihood of
acquiring or transmitting HIV. In 1998, the CDC reported approximately 38,000 cases of syphilis
in the United States; this included 800 cases of congenital syphilis. Congenital syphilis causes
irreversible health problems or death in as many as 40% of all live babies born to women with
untreated syphilis.
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV): In 2000, the CDC reported that 120,223 people in
the United States are HIV-positive and 426,350 are living with AIDS. In addition, approximately
1,000-2,000 children are born each year with HIV infection. It is also estimated that 33 million
adults and 1.3 million children worldwide were living with HIV/AIDS as of 1999 with 5.4 million
being newly infected that year. As of 2001, there is no cure for this STD.
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Chapter 8
Nervous System
The nervous system is made up of three smaller systems, all of which function together to
gather information from what is happening around you and gives orders on how your body
should react. The high development of the human being’s nervous system is what sets humans
apart from other species.
Central Nervous System (CNS): refers to the brain and spinal cord. The brain and spinal
cord serve as the main "processing center" for the entire nervous system, and control all the
workings of the body.
Peripheral nervous system (PNS): consists of all parts of the nervous system, except the
brain and spinal cord. It connects the central nervous system to the remainder of the body, and
is the conduit through which neural signals are transmitted to and from the central nervous
system.
Autonomic nervous system (ANS): part of the vertebrate nervous system that regulates
involuntary action, such as the intestines, heart, and glands, and that is divided into the
sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system.
Sympathetic nervous system: from the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord
that in general inhibits or opposes the physiological effects of the parasympathetic
nervous system, tending to reduce digestive secretions, speeding up the heart, and
contracting blood vessels.
Parasympathetic nervous system: originating in the brain stem and the lower part of
the spinal cord that, in general, inhibits or opposes the physiological effects of the
sympathetic nervous system, tending to stimulate digestive secretions, slow the heart,
constrict the pupils, and dilate blood vessels.
Cerebrum: The large rounded structure of the brain occupying most of the cranial cavity,
divided into two cerebral hemispheres. It controls and integrates motor, sensory, and higher
mental functions, such as thought, reason, emotion, and memory.
Cerebellum: The tri-lobed structure of the brain, that is responsible for the regulation and
coordination of complex voluntary muscular movement as well as the maintenance of posture
and balance.
Brain stem: forms a bridge between cerebrum and spinal cord and also carries the major
pathways for signals to pass to and from the cerebellum. Consists of three distinct parts. From
top down these are the midbrain; a bridge-like structure, the pons; and the medulla
oblongata, which merges with the spinal cord.
Vertebrae: The individual bones of the spinal column which are stacked on top of each other.
There is a hole in the center of each bone, through which the spinal cord passes.
Meninges: the collective term for the three membranes covering the brain and spinal cord.
The meninges are composed of the dura mater (outer), the arachnoid (middle), and the pia
mater (inner).
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Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF): The serum-like fluid that circulates through the ventricles of the
brain, the cavity of the spinal cord, and the subarachnoid space, functioning in shock absorption.
Nerve fiber: (also known as axon) is a long, slender projection of a nerve cell, or neuron, that
conducts electrical impulses away from the neuron's cell body
Dendrites: the branched projections of a neuron that act to conduct the electrical stimulation
received from other neural cells to the cell body of the neuron from which the dendrites project.
Electrical stimulation is transmitted onto dendrites by upstream neurons via synapses which are
located at various points throughout the dendritic arbor.
Synapses: junction across which a nerve impulse passes from an axon terminal to a neuron,
muscle cell, or gland cell.
Sensory nerves: nerves that receive sensory stimuli, such as how something feels and if it is
painful.
Motor nerve: a nerve that activates muscles or glands
Diseases and Disorders
Epilepsy: a condition characterized by recurrent seizures that may include repetitive muscle
jerking called convulsions.
Seizure: a sudden disruption of the brain's normal electrical activity accompanied by altered
consciousness and/or other neurological and behavioral manifestations.
Alzheimer's disease (AD): the most common form of dementia, a neurologic disease
characterized by loss of mental ability severe enough to interfere with normal activities of daily
living, lasting at least six months, and not present from birth. AD usually occurs in old age, and is
marked by a decline in cognitive functions such as remembering, reasoning, and planning.
Poliomyelitis: also called polio, a highly infectious viral disease that may attack the central
nervous system and is characterized by symptoms that range from a mild nonparalytic infection
to total paralysis in a matter of hours.
Meningitis: a potentially fatal inflammation of the meninges, the thin, membranous covering
of the brain and the spinal cord. Most commonly caused by infection (by bacteria, viruses, or
fungi), although it can also be caused by bleeding into the meninges, cancer, diseases of the
immune system, and an inflammatory response to certain types of chemotherapy or other
chemical agents. The most serious and difficult-to-treat types of meningitis tend to be those
caused by bacteria. It is a particularly dangerous infection because of the very delicate nature of
the brain. Brain cells are some of the only cells in the body that, once killed, will not regenerate
themselves. Therefore, if enough brain tissue is damaged by an infection, serious, life-long
handicaps will remain.
Hydrocephalus: an abnormal expansion of cavities (ventricles) within the brain that is caused
by the accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid. Its is the result of an imbalance between the
formation and drainage of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Parkinson's disease (PD): is a progressive movement disorder marked by tremors,
rigidity, slow movements (bradykinesia), and posture instability. It occurs when cells in one of
the movement-control centers of the brain begin to die for unknown reasons.
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Chapter 9
Skeletal System
There are 206 bones which make up the human skeleton. The skeletal system has many
functions
Functions of the skeletal system:
1. support – framework
2. protection - protect internal organs (i.e. rib cage, skull)
3. movement – muscles attach
4. mineral storage – calcium, phosphate
5. hematopoiesis – blood cell formation in red bone marrow
6. triglyceride storage – fat, found in yellow bone marrow
Long Bone: to be a long bone it must be longer than it is wide
Spongy Bone: the type of bone found at the ends of long bones and in the vertebrae. It has a
honeycomb structure consisting of small needle-like or flat pieces of mineralized bars called
trabeculae, in between which are spaces filled with marrow and fat.
Periosteum: The dense fibrous membrane covering the surfaces of bones (except at the
joints) and serves as an attachment for muscles and tendons.
Marrow: The soft, specialized connective tissue that fills the cavities of bones. One kind of bone
marrow is responsible for manufacturing red blood cells in the body.
Cartilage: A tough, elastic, fibrous connective tissue found in various parts of the body, such
as the joints, outer ear, and larynx. A major constituent of the embryonic and young
vertebrate skeleton, it is converted largely to bone with maturation.
Compact bone: Hard, dense bone composing the outer cortical layer
Tendon: A band of tough, inelastic fibrous tissue that connects a muscle with its bony
attachment.
Ligament: A strong, flexible connective tissue band usually found between two bony
prominences.
Axial skeleton: The 80 bones constituting the head and trunk of a vertebrate body.
Appendicular skeleton: consisting of 126 bones, makes body movement possible and protects
the organs of digestion, excretion, and reproduction. It refers to an appendage or anything
attached to a major part of the body, such as the upper and lower extremities.
33
Joints
Joints: Where two or more bones come together
Functional classification
1. synarthrosis: immovable joints
a. example: sutures of the skull
2. amphiorthrosis: slightly movable
a. example: tibia and fibula
3. diarthroses: freely movable
a. example: elbow and fingers
Types of movement
1. gliding: bone surface glides or slips over another
a. example: intercarpal (wrist) and intertarsal (ankle) joints
2. angular
a. flexion: a decrease in the angle between articulating bones, brings bones
closer together
i. lateral: movement of the trunk sideways to the right or left at the waist.
ii. Dorsiflexion: bending of the foot at the ankle in the direction of the
superior surface
iii. Plantarflexion: bending the foot at the ankle joint in the direction of
the plantar surface
b. extension: an increase in the angle between articulating bones, returning to
the anatomical positon
i. hyperextension: extension past normal
c. abduction: movement of a limb away from the midline, also fingers spreading
apart
d. adduction: movement of a limb toward the midline
e. circumduction: movement of the distal end of a part of the body in a circle,
occurs as a result of a continuous sequence of flexion, abduction, extension, and
adduction. Can only be done with a ball and socket joint.
3. rotational: a bone revolves around its own long longitudinal axis
a. medial rotation: anterior surface of a limb bone is turned toward the midline
b. lateral rotation: anterior surface of a limb bone turned away from the midline
4. special movements: movements that do not fit into the above categories
a. elevation: an upward (superior) movement of a part of the body, lifting a body
part superiorly
b. depression: a downward (inferior)movement of a part of the body, attached to
midline
c. protraction: a movement of the body part interiorly in the transverse pain
d. retraction: a movement if a protracted part back to the anatomical or original
position
e. inversion: turns the sole of the foot (at the intertarsal joint) so that it faces
medially, the soles face each other
f. eversion: turns the soles of the feet (at the intertarsal joint) so that it faces
laterally, soles will face away from each other
g. supination: rotating the forearm laterally so that the palms face anteriorly or
superiorly
h. pronation: rotating the arm medially so that the palm faces posteriourly or
inferiorly
i. opposition: the thumb at the carpometacarpal joint in which the thumb moves
across the palm to touch the tips of the finger on the same hand
34
Diseases and Disorders
Sprain: stretching of ligaments
Strain: tear or stretch of muscle tendon
Dislocation: displacement of two bones so that they are no longer lined up
Arthritis: inflammation or degeneration of joints
1. rheumatoid arthritis: chronic inflammation, excess fluid, more common in females
2. osteoarthritis: degeneration from wear and tear
3. gouty arthritis: uric acid accumulation in joints that form crystals. More common in
males, it is easy to control with medication. Symptoms include inflammation of foot
joints.
Scoliosis: When viewed from the rear, the spine usually appears perfectly straight. Scoliosis is a
lateral (side-to-side) curve in the spine, usually combined with a rotation of the vertebrae
Atrophy: Wasting of normally developed tissue or muscle as a result of disuse, ageing, or
under-nutrition.
Spina bifida: a congenital defect in which the spinal column is imperfectly closed so that part
of the meninges or spinal cord protrudes, often resulting in neurological disorders. It ranges
from having no or mild effects, to having severe effects and a significant impact upon a person's
life. Physical symptoms can include weakness of limbs, paralysis, lack of bowel or bladder
control, learning problems, hydrocephalus, seizures, apnea, club-feet, impaired vision, and
latex sensitivity.
Ossification: The hardening or calcification of soft tissue into a bonelike material.
Fracture: a complete or incomplete break in a bone resulting from the application of excessive
force.





Closed or simple fracture. The bone is
broken, but the skin is not lacerated.
Open or compound fracture. The skin may be
pierced by the bone or by a blow that breaks
the skin at the time of the fracture. The bone
may or may not be visible in the wound.
Transverse fracture. The fracture is at right
angles to the long axis of the bone.
Greenstick fracture. Fracture on one side of
the bone, causing a bend on the other side of
the bone.
Comminuted fracture. A fracture that results in three or more bone fragments.
Why are infections more common with compound fractures than with simple fractures?
- a compound fracture is an open fracture so it is exposed to the outside environment
while a simple fracture is closed.
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Chapter 10
Muscular System
There are more than 600 muscles in the human body. These muscles account for 40% of the
body weight in men and 30% in women. Muscles are made up of bundles of fibers that contract
when stimulated by nerve impulses to produce movement.
Functions of muscle tissue
1. produce movement: whole body (skeletal), internal organs, blood
2. body posture: stand or sit
3. generate heat: muscle contractions, produce heat (shiver)
Functional characteristics of muscle tissue
1. excitability: muscle responds to a stimulus and produces an electrical signal
2. contractility: ability to contract (tissue with shorten/thicken)
3. extensibility: ability to stretch without damage
4. elasticity: ability to return to original shape
Skeletal muscle: moves the skeleton and is responsible for all our voluntary movements, as
well as for the automatic movements required, for example, to stand, to hold up our head, and
to breathe.
Smooth muscle: Muscle tissue that contracts without conscious control, found in the walls of
the internal organs, such as the stomach, intestine, bladder, and blood vessels, excluding
the heart.
Cardiac muscle: The specialized striated muscle tissue of the heart.
Bursa: A sac or saclike bodily cavity, especially one containing a viscous lubricating fluid and
located between a tendon and a bone or at points of friction between moving structures.
Tonic contractions: The sustained contraction of a muscle, as is necessary for maintaining
posture
Isotonic contraction: tension rises and the skeletal muscle's length changes. Lifting an object
off a desk, walking, and running involve isotonic contractions. Two types:
(1) concentric: In a concentric contraction, the muscle tension exceeds the resistance
and the muscle shortens. e.g. the upward movement of a dumbbell in a biceps curl or
as you spring back from a jump landing, extending your knees and jumping back up in
the air, the quadriceps are shortening as they create force to push you off.
(2) eccentric: In eccentric, the muscle lengthens due to force greater than which the
muscle can produce. e.g. the downward movement of a dumbbell in a biceps curl or
when you land on two feet from a jump and bend your knees the quadriceps are
lengthening.
Isometric contraction: A contraction in which muscle tension is increased, but the muscle is
not shortened because the resistance cannot be overcome. Also known as static contraction.
Twitch: A sudden involuntary or spasmodic muscular movement.
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Diseases and Disorders
Bursitis: the painful inflammation of the bursa, a padlike sac found in areas subject to friction.
It cushions the movement between the bones, tendons and muscles near the joints. Bursitis is
most often caused by repetitive movement and is known by several common names including
weaver's bottom, clergyman's knee, and miner's elbow, depending on the affected individual's
occupation and area of injury
Muscular dystrophy: Any of a group of progressive muscle disorders caused by a defect in
one or more genes that control muscle function and characterized by gradual irreversible
wasting of skeletal muscle.
Atrophy: A wasting or decrease in size of a body organ, tissue, or part owing to disease,
injury, or lack of use.
Hernia: a general term used to describe a bulge or protrusion of an organ through the
structure or muscle that usually contains it.
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Chapter 11
Integumentary System
The Integumentary system provides an outer covering and protection for the human body.
It makes up 7% of body weight.
Functions of Integumentary System
1. protection
2. thermo regulation
a. sweat glands – cooling through evaporation
b. blood vessels dilate (open) – heat in blood can escape
c. blood vessels constrict (close) - heat body
3. sensation
a. nerve endings, hair, touch, pressure
4. energy storage
5. blood reservoir
6. excretion
Structure
1. epidermis
a. most superficial
b. made up of epithelial tissue
2. dermis
a. deeper
b. made up of connective tissue
c. has blood supply
3. hypodermis (subcutaneous layer)
a. not part of skin, below dermis
b. mainly adipose tissue
c. function: energy storage (fats), protection, help connect dermis to underlying
muscle, fat storage
Cell types
1. keratinocytes: secrete a protein that proved toughness/durability, help protect microbes
from getting in
2. melanocytes: produce melanin (pigment)
3. langerhan: immune response
4. merkel: sensation of touch
Diseases and Disorders
Dermis tear: stretch marks
Blister: fluid in between the dermis and epidermis
Dermatitis: a general term used to describe inflammation of the skin.
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Contact dermatitis: a reaction that causes acute itching, redness, swelling, large blisters,
and in chronic cases, red, scaly papules (raised bumps) and plaques (abnormal flat areas)
Dermatocyst: A cyst of the skin.
Dermatorrhea: An excessive secretion of the sebaceous or sweat glands of the skin.
Diaphoresis: excessive sweating commonly associated with shock and other medical
emergency conditions.
Comedo: a black-tipped plug clogging a pore of the skin (blackhead)
Ecchymosis: The passage of blood from ruptured blood vessels into subcutaneous tissue,
marked by a purple discoloration of the skin. (Frequently called a bruise.)
Gangrene: Death and decay of body tissue, often occurring in a limb, caused by insufficient
blood supply and usually following injury or disease.
Contusion: A bruise that is usually produced by impact from a blunt object and that does not
cause a break in the skin.
Scabies: A contagious skin disease caused by a parasitic mite (Sarcoptes scabiei) and
characterized by intense itching.
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