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BASIC ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY Table of Contents Introduction Chapter 1..............................................Cardiovascular System (Circulatory) Chapter 2..............................................Lymphatic System (Circulatory) Chapter 3..............................................Respiratory System Chapter 4..............................................Digestive System Chapter 5..............................................Endocrine System Chapter 6..............................................Urinary System Chapter 7..............................................Reproductive System Chapter 8..............................................Nervous System Chapter 9..............................................Skeletal System Chapter 10............................................Muscular System Chapter 11............................................Integumentary System 1 I. INTRODUCTION A. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY DEFINED. Anatomy (anatome = to dissect.): The study of structure and the relationship of structures to one another. Different types of anatomy exist: 1. Surface: The study of form and markings on the surface of the body. 2. Gross (macroscopic): The study of structures that can be viewed without the use of a microscope. 3. Systematic: The study of body systems. 4. Regional: The study of specific regions of the body. Physiology: A study of the function of the human body or it’s parts. 1. Each structure is custom modeled to carry out a particular function or set of functions. 2. Structure very often determines the function the part will perform. 3. Body functions influence the size, shape, and health of structures. B. LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION 1. Chemical 2. Cellular 3. Tissue 4. Organ 5. System 6. Organism C. STRUCTURAL PLAN There are several anatomical & physiological aspects that make the human being different from other organisms. Some of these important differences include: 1. The presence of a vertebral column. 2. A tube-within-a-tube construction (the GI tract is one long tube running through our bodies, the other tube.) 3. Bilateral symmetry 4. The presence of a cerebrum (higher level/abstract thought) 2 Body Directions Posterior: Back or Dorsal Anterior: Front or ventral Distal: Toward the end Proximal: Closer to the core or root of the extremity Inferior: lower or below Superior: higher or above Lateral: Toward the side (away from midline) Medial: Toward the center (toward midline) 3 Body Regions The Four Quadrants Four body cavities 1- Cranium / skull 2- Thoracic 3- Abdominal 4- Pelvic 4 RUQ- Liver, Gall bladder Colon, Small Intestine LUQ- spleen, Pancreas, colon Small Intestine, stomach RLQ- Colon, Small Intestine, Appendix LLQ- Colon, Small Intestine, Ovaries Ovaries Hollow organs: - when damaged: rupture, leak, inflammation, infection Solid Organs: - when damaged: bleed heavily 5 Chapter 1 Circulatory System The circulatory system is subdivided into the cardiovascular system and the lymphatic system. Cardiovascular System The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, which is a muscular pumping device, and a closed system of vessels called arteries, veins, and capillaries. As the name implies, blood contained in the circulatory system is pumped by the heart around a closed circle or circuit of vessels as it passes again and again through the various "circulations" of the body. Purpose of the circulatory system: 1. Primary a. Transport Oxygen and nutrients to the cells b. Transport Carbon Dioxide and waste from the cells 2. Maintaining acid-base / fluid balance 3. Protecting the body against disease 4. Preventing bleeding by forming clots 5. Helping to regulate body temperature Heart anatomy Four chambers: left and right atria, left and right ventricle Artery: blood vessel that takes blood away from the heart Vein: blood vessel that takes blood toward the heart Atria: receiving chambers Blood comes from circulation vessels and leads to the ventricles The smaller of the chambers, has thin walls Ventricle: discharging chamber Pumps blood to the lungs and body The larger of the chambers, has thick walls 6 Heart valves 1. atroventricular valve (AV valve) a. right side = tricuspid valve, in between right atria and right ventricle, has three flaps b. left side = bicuspid valve, (or Mitral) in between left atria and left ventricle – two flaps open = movement (gravity and pressure difference = blood moves from atria to ventricle) close = blood stays in atria chordae tendineae: “heart strings” – connective tissue attached to the AV valves, act as guide wires, important for closing the AV valves 2. semilunar valve (SL valve) - between ventricle and blood vessel, it looks like tree crescent shaped flaps. There it no work done to open them, and they are closed by pressure. Job is to keep blood from going back into the atria a. aorta SL valve: between left ventricle and aorta b. pulmonary SL valve: between right ventricle and pulmonary artery 7 Pathway of blood 1. right atrium – receive blood from body a. three vessels lead to the right atrium i. superior vena cava (blood from above the diaphragm) ii. inferior vena cava (blood from below the diaphragm) iii. coronary sinus (all blood from heart) 2. tricuspid valve 3. right ventricle – pump/discharge blood toward the lung to become oxygenated 4. pulmonary SL valve 5. pulmonary artery 6. lung – pick up 02, dispose CO2 7. pulmonary vein 8. left atrium 9. bicuspid valve 10. left ventricle – discharge blood to the body 11. aortic SL valve 12. aorta 13. Small arteries 14. capillary - body tissue 15. veins 16. vena cava Anatomical Differences in Left and Right - size: the left side is bigger, thicker, pumps farther and works harder than the right. Both pump at the same time and the same amount Right sided failure - blood accumulates in the tissue which leads to edema Left sided failure - blood accumulates in the lungs which leads to pulmonary edema Blood Pressure: the force of blood against the vessel wall (mmHg) Cardiac Cycle - diastole = heart relaxing - systole = heart contracting Hypertension: high blood pressure (above 140/90) - caused by: stress, weight, drugs, diet, genetics hypotension: low blood pressure (below 90/50) - caused by: thyroid disease, hormonal disease Heart Sounds = lub-dub Do to closing of the valves 1st sound – lub = both of the AV valves closing 2nd sound – dub = both of the SL valves closing 8 Electrocardiogram (ECG/EKG) - graphical recording of the electrical activity of the heart P wave: atrial contraction QRS wave: ventricular contraction T wave: ventricular relaxing Q-T interval: ventricle contraction Fibrillation: rapid and irregular, out of phase contraction Arial Fibrillation Ventricular Fibrillation Terminology - cardiac output: amount of blood pumped from ventricle in one minute o CO = stroke volume x heart rate stroke volume: amount of blood pumped in one beat heart rate: number of beats in one minute tachycardia: abnormally high heart rate (greater than 100 beats/minute) o caused by: drugs/caffeine, disease, hyperthyrodism, stress, temperature bradycardia: abnormally slow heart rate (less than 60 beats/minute at rest) o caused by: drugs, disease, over activated PNS, temperature So if you stand on your head what happens to your heart rate? - it decreases because the body wants to keep the CO the same. The body needs to decrease the heart rate to balance the increased stroke volume to keep a normal cardiac output Circulatory shock: any condition in which blood vessels are inadequately filled – no longer have full circulation 1. hypovolemic shock: low blood volume (hemorrhage) 2. vascular/neurgenic shock: not due to blood loss, extreme vasodilatation – greater amount of blood in veins 3. cardiogenic shock: heart pump failure, inadequate filling of circulatory system Blood Functions of blood - transport/distribution - regulation: body temperature, maintain pH, volume - protection: clotting, preventing blood loss, protect against infection 9 components of blood plasma: a straw-colored, clear liquid that is 90 percent water. Plasma also contains dissolved salts and minerals like calcium, sodium, magnesium, and potassium. Microbe-fighting antibodies travel by hitching a ride in the plasma. Without plasma, the lifegiving blood cells would be left floundering without transportation platelets: an irregularly-shaped, colorless body that are present in blood. Their sticky surface lets them, along with other substances, form clots to stop bleeding. White blood cells: also known as leukocytes, are cells of the immune system defending the body against both infectious disease and foreign materials. The white blood cells have a rather short life cycle, living from a few days to a few weeks Red blood cells: the most common type of blood cell and the principal means of delivering oxygen from the lungs body tissues via the blood.The average life cycle of a red blood cell is 120 days. Blood Typing Antigens: substance/protein that are recognized by the immune system a “nametag” Antibodies: proteins released by the immune system to identify things that are foreign Antigen Antibody A A B B B A AB AB none O None AB Universal donor: O Universal recipient: AB Rh: if you have the Rh antigen = + blood type, if antigen is negative = - blood type Disorders and Disease - - Cardiovascular disease (heart disease): includes dysfunctional conditions of the heart, arteries, and veins that supply oxygen to vital life-sustaining areas of the body like the brain, the heart itself, and other vital organs. If oxygen doesn't arrive the tissue or organ will die. Coronary artery disease: is the end result of the accumulation of plaque within the walls of the arteries that supply the heart with oxygen and nutrients Atherosclerosis: the process in which deposits of fatty substances, cholesterol, cellular waste products, calcium and other substances build up in the inner lining of an artery. This buildup is called plaque Arteriosclerosis: a general term for the thickening and hardening of arteries Angina pectoris: term for chest pain or discomfort due to coronary heart disease. Congenital heart disease: Any heart condition or abnormality that a person was born with Leukemia: is a cancer of the blood or bone marrow and is characterized by an abnormal proliferation of blood cells, usually white blood cells 10 - Hemophilia: is a rare, inherited bleeding disorder in which your blood doesn’t clot normally. Rheumatic Fever: is an inflammatory disease which may develop after a Group A streptococcal infection (such as strep throat or scarlet fever) and can involve the heart, joints, skin, and brain. It is responsible for many cases of damaged heart valves. hemorrhagic stroke: occurs when a blood vessel within the brain bursts. The most likely cause is uncontrolled hypertension. Arrhythmia: This is an abnormal rhythm of the heart ischemic stroke: (the most common type) happens when a blood vessel that feeds the brain gets blocked, usually from a blood clot. hemorrhagic stroke: occurs when a blood vessel within the brain bursts. The most likely cause is uncontrolled hypertension. heart attack: Sudden death of a portion of the heart muscle caused by a sudden decrease in blood supply to that area. Also known as myocardial infarction or MI Atrial fibrillation: Rapid, uneven contractions in the upper heart chambers (atria), which cause the lower chambers (ventricles) to beat irregularly Congestive heart failure: A common form of heart failure that results in a patient retaining excessive fluid, often leading to swelling of the legs and ankles and congestion in the lungs. Anemia: A reduction in the amount of oxygen-carrying red blood cells. Anemia can have many causes, but the most common is a lack of iron in the body. Related Organs - - - Spleen: located in the abdomen of the body, where it functions in the destruction of redundant red blood cells and holds a reservoir of blood. It also removes unwanted materials from the blood, including old red blood cells and helps fight infections. Kidney: primary role is to maintain the homeostatic balance of bodily fluids by filtering and secreting metabolites and minerals from the blood and excreting them, along with water, as urine. The kidneys are located in the posterior part of the abdomen. There is one on each side of the spine; the right kidney sits just below the liver, the left below the diaphragm and adjacent to the spleen. Liver: necessary for survival; a human can only last up to 24 hours without liver function. It plays a major role in metabolism and has a number of functions in the body, including glycogen storage, decomposition of red blood cells, plasma protein synthesis, and detoxification. It lies below the diaphragm in the thoracic region of the abdomen. Bone Marrow: the flexible tissue found in the hollow interior of bones. In adults, marrow in large bones produces new blood cells. 11 Chapter 2 Lymphatic System The lymphatic system is considered part of the circulatory system because it consists of a moving fluid (derived from the blood) and group of vessels (which returns the fluid to the blood). Lymph is called interstitial fluid and it nourishes the body tissue. The lymphatic system is also part of the body’s defense system. Foreign matter is filtered out in the tissue of lymph nodes. Lymph: a watery clear liquid composed of interstitial fluid (a solution, which surrounds cells) and other particles found in the area between the cells. Normally, fluid is forced out of capillaries at the arterial end and reabsorbed at the venous end. However, not all the fluid which forced out is reabsorbed. This excess fluid is returned to the circulatory system by lymphatic vessels as lymph. How long could a person live without the lymphatic system? - they would die within one day - If the lymphatic system didn't drain the excess fluid from the tissues, the lymph fluid would build up in the body's tissues, and they would swell, causing death Lymphocytes: a type of white blood cell. Some lymphocytes make antibodies, special proteins that fight off germs and stop infections from spreading by trapping disease-causing germs and destroying them Lymph Node: clean fluid before going back into the system. When a person has an infection, germs collect in the lymph nodes. If the throat is infected, for example, the lymph nodes of the neck may swell. That's why doctors check for swollen lymph glands in the neck when your throat is infected. Anatomy of a node: Lymph nodes are round or kidney-shaped, and can be up to 1 inch in diameter. Most of the lymph nodes are found in clusters in the neck, armpit, and groin area. Nodes are also located along the lymphatic pathways in the chest, abdomen, and pelvis, where they filter the blood. Inside the lymph nodes, lymphocytes called T-cells and B-cells help the body fight infection. Lymphatic tissue is also scattered throughout the body in different major organs and in and around the gastrointestinal tract. Functions of a node: 1. It is responsible for the removal of interstitial fluid from tissues. 2. It absorbs and transports fatty acids and fats as chyle (pronounced Kil) to the circulatory system. 3. production of immune cells, such as lymphocytes, including antibody producing plasma cells and monocytes. Lymphoma: a disease in which malignant lymphocytes grow too fast or live too long. These cells may then accumulate in the lymph nodes or other areas of the lymphatic system to form tumors. lymph vessels: are thin walled, valved structures that carry lymph. Lymph vessels act as a reservoir from plasma and other substances including cells that leaked from the vascular system 12 and transport lymph fluid back from the tissues to the circulatory system. Without functioning lymph vessels, lymph cannot be effectively drained and edema typically results. Edema: swelling or puffiness of parts of the body. It is caused by water that gets trapped in the tissues of your body. Edema usually happens in the feet, ankles and legs. It also can affect the face and hands. It is the increase of interstitial fluid in any organ — swelling. Lymphatic organs: 1. spleen: breakdown/destroy RBC 2. thymus: T cell maturation 3. lymph node: filter lymph, clean fluid before going back into system 4. tonsils: filter/clean the air that comes in 5. malt: mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue, (what the appendix is made of) cleans and filtered fluid 13 Chapter 3 Respiratory System The respiratory system provides for the intake and output of air and makes it possible of the exchange of gases between the blood and air. Functions: supply oxygen to the body, eliminate carbon dioxide from the body, helps regulate the bodies acid-base balance Air moves through the body in the following order 1. Nasal cavity 2. Pharynx 3. Larynx (voice box) 4. Trachea (wind pipe) 5. Thoracic cavity (chest) 6. Bronchi (right and left) 7. Alveoli (site of gas exchange) 14 Ventilation of the lungs is carried out by the muscles of respiration. Inspiration: the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles contract. The diaphragm moves downwards increasing the volume of the thoracic (chest) cavity, and the intercostal muscles pull the ribs up expanding the rib cage and further increasing this volume. This increase of volume lowers the air pressure in the alveoli to below atmospheric pressure. Because air always flows from a region of high pressure to a region of lower pressure, it rushes in through the respiratory tract and into the alveoli. Expiration: the diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax. This returns the thoracic cavity to it's original volume, increasing the air pressure in the lungs, and forcing the air out. Lungs: the main organs of the respiratory system, oxygen is taken into the body and carbon dioxide is breathed out. The red blood cells are responsible for picking up the oxygen in the lungs and carrying the oxygen to all the body cells that need it. The red blood cells drop off the oxygen to the body cells, then pick up the carbon dioxide which is a waste gas product produced by our cells. The red blood cells transport the carbon dioxide back to the lungs and we breathe it out when we exhale. Trachea: sometimes called the windpipe, it filters the air we breathe and branches into the bronchi. Bronchi: two air tubes that branch off of the trachea and carry air directly into the lungs. Diaphragm: a dome-shaped muscle at the bottom of the lungs. When you breathe in, the diaphragm contracts. When it contracts it flattens out and pulls downward. This movement enlarges the space that the lungs are in. This larger space pulls air into the lungs. When you breathe out, the diaphragm expands reducing the amount of space for the lungs and forcing air out. The diaphragm is the main muscle used in breathing. Why Do I Yawn? - When you are sleepy or drowsy the lungs do not take enough oxygen from the air. This causes a shortage of oxygen in our bodies. The brain senses this shortage of oxygen and sends a message that causes you to take a deep long breath 15 Why Do I Sneeze? - Sneezing is like a cough in the upper breathing passages. It is the body's way of removing an irritant from the sensitive mucous membranes of the nose. Many things can irritate the mucous membranes. Dust, pollen, pepper or even a cold blast of air are just some of the many things that may cause you to sneeze. Asthma: Asthma is a chronic inflammatory lung disease that causes airways to tighten and narrow. Often triggered by irritants in the air such as cigarette smoke, asthma flares involve contraction and swelling of the muscles lining the tiny airways. The resulting narrowing of the airways prevents air from flowing properly, causing wheezing and difficulty breathing, sometimes to the point of being life-threatening. Bronchiolitis: Not to be confused with bronchitis, bronchiolitis is an inflammation of the bronchioles, the smallest branches of the bronchial tree. Bronchiolitis affects mostly infants and young children, and can cause wheezing and serious difficulty breathing. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD): a term that describes two lung diseases — emphysema and chronic bronchitis Emphysema: often caused by long-term smoking. The lungs produce an excessive amount of mucus and the alveoli become damaged. It becomes difficult to breathe and get enough oxygen into the blood. Tuberculosis: a bacterial infection caused by a germ called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The bacteria usually attack the lungs, but they can also damage other parts of the body. TB spreads through the air when a person with TB of the lungs or throat coughs, sneezes or talks. Bronchitis: a common disease of adults and adolescents, the membranes lining the larger bronchial tubes become inflamed and an excessive amount of mucus is produced. The person develops a bad cough to get rid of the mucus. Cigarette smoking is a major cause of chronic bronchitis in teens. Common cold: Caused by over 200 different viruses that cause inflammation in the upper respiratory tract, the common cold is the most common respiratory infection. Symptoms may include a mild fever, cough, headache, runny nose, sneezing, and sore throat. Cough: a symptom of an illness, not an illness itself. There are many different types of cough and many different causes, ranging from not-so-serious to life-threatening. Cystic fibrosis: the most common inherited disease affecting the lungs. Affecting primarily the respiratory and digestive systems, CF causes mucus in the body to be abnormally thick and sticky. The mucus can clog the airways in the lungs and make a person more vulnerable to bacterial infections. Lung cancer: Caused by an abnormal growth of cells in the lungs, lung cancer is a leading cause of death in the United States and is usually caused by smoking cigarettes. It starts in the lining of the bronchi and takes a long time to develop. Symptoms include a persistent cough that may bring up blood, chest pain, hoarseness, and shortness of breath. 16 Pneumonia: This inflammation of the lungs usually occurs because of bacterial or viral infection. Pneumonia causes fever and inflammation of lung tissue, and makes breathing difficult because the lungs have to work harder to transfer oxygen into the bloodstream and remove carbon dioxide from the blood Pulmonary hypertension: This condition occurs when the blood pressure in the arteries of the lungs is abnormally high, which means the heart has to work harder to pump blood against the high pressure. Intercostal muscles: Thin sheets of muscle between each rib that expand (when air is inhaled) and contract (when air is exhaled). Lungs: The two organs that extract oxygen from inhaled air and expel carbon dioxide in exhaled air. The lungs have separate lobes. The left side has two lobes and the right side has three. Nasal cavity: Interior area of the nose; lined with a sticky mucous membrane and contains tiny, surface hairs called cilia. Nose hairs: Located at the entrance of the nose, these hairs trap large particles that are inhaled. Pharynx: The throat. Pleural membrane: Covering the lung and lining the chest cavity, this membrane has 2 thin layers. Pulmonary vessels: Pulmonary arteries carry deoxygenated blood from the heart and lungs; pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood back to the heart. Respiratory center: Area of the brain that controls breathing. Ribs: Bones attached to the spine and central portion of the breastbone, which support the chest wall and protect the heart, lungs, and other organs in the chest. Sinuses: hollow spaces in the bones of the head. Small openings connect them to the nasal cavity. The functions they serve are not clearly understood, but include helping to regulate the temperature and humidity of air breathed in, as well as to lighten the bone structure of the head and to give resonance to the voice. Adenoids: are overgrown lymph tissue at the top of the throat. When they interfere with breathing, they are generally removed.. Epiglottis: is a flap of tissue that guards the entrance to the trachea, closing when anything is swallowed that should go into the esophagus and stomach. Larynx: (voice box) contains the vocal cords. It is the place where moving air being breathed in and out creates voice sounds. Esophagus: is the passage leading from the mouth and throat to the stomach. Trachea: (windpipe) is the passage leading from the pharynx to the lungs. 17 Ribs: are bones supporting and protecting the chest cavity. They move to a limited degree, helping the lungs to expand and contract. Pleura: are the two membranes, that surround each lobe of the lungs and separate the lungs from the chest wall. 18 Chapter 4 Digestive System alimentary canal: (also called the digestive tract) is the long tube of organs — including the esophagus, stomach, and intestines — that runs from the mouth to the anus. An adult's digestive tract is about 30 feet (about 9 meters) long. salivary glands: begin producing saliva when we see, smell, taste, or even imagine a tasty meal. They are located under the tongue and near the lower jaw. This flow of saliva is set in motion by a brain reflex that's triggered when we sense food or think about eating. In response to this sensory stimulation, the brain sends impulses through the nerves that control the salivary glands, telling them to prepare for a meal. Amylase: A digestive enzyme, which is found in saliva, starts to break down some of the carbohydrates (starches and sugars) in the food before it leaves the mouth. Swallowing: muscle movements in the tongue and mouth, moves the food into the throat. Peristalsis: Waves of muscle contractions force food down through the esophagus to the stomach. Sphincter: At the end of the esophagus, a muscular ring or valve allows food to enter the stomach and then squeezes shut to keep food or fluid from flowing back up into the esophagus. Small Intestine: The small intestine is made up of three parts: 1. the duodenum, the C-shaped first part 2. the jejunum, the coiled midsection 3. the ileum, the final section that leads into the large intestine villi: The inner wall of the small intestine is covered with millions of microscopic, finger-like projections. They are the vehicles through which nutrients can be absorbed into the body. Liver: produces bile, which helps the body absorb fat, handling and processing of nutrients, which are carried to the liver in the blood from the small intestine. Gallbladder: where bile is stored until it is needed. Pancreas: produces enzymes that help digest proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. It also makes a substance that neutralizes stomach acid. These enzymes and bile travel through special channels (called ducts) directly into the small intestine, where they help to break down food. Large Intestine: The large intestine is made up of these three parts: 1. cecum: a pouch at the beginning of the large intestine that joins the small intestine to the large intestine. This transition area expands in diameter, allowing food to travel from the small intestine to the large. 2. appendix: a small, hollow, finger-like pouch, hangs at the end of the cecum. Doctors believe the appendix is left over from a previous time in human evolution. It no longer appears to be useful to the digestive process. 3. colon: extends from the cecum up the right side of the abdomen, across the upper abdomen, and then down the left side of the abdomen, finally connecting to the rectum. 19 The colon has three parts: the ascending colon; the transverse colon, which absorb fluids and salts; and the descending colon, which holds the resulting waste. Bacteria in the colon help to digest the remaining food products. Rectum: is where feces are stored until they leave the digestive system through the anus as a bowel movement. Diarrhea: muscle contractions move the contents of the intestines along too quickly and there isn't enough time for water to be absorbed before the feces are pushed out of the body. Constipation: The contents of the large intestines do not move along fast enough and waste materials stay in the large intestine so long that too much water is removed and the feces become hard. Appendicitis: inflammation of the appendix, most often affects kids and teens between 11 and 25 years old, and requires surgery to correct. The classic symptoms of appendicitis are abdominal pain, fever, loss of appetite, and vomiting. Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD): is chronic inflammation of the intestines that affects older kids, teens, and adults. 1. ulcerative colitis, which usually affects just the rectum and the large intestine 2. Crohn's disease, which can affect the whole gastrointestinal tract from the mouth to the anus as well as other parts of the body. Celiac disease: digestive system is damaged by the response of the immune system to a protein called gluten, which is found in wheat, rye, and barley and a wide range of foods, from breakfast cereal to pizza crust. People with celiac disease have difficulty digesting the nutrients from their food and may experience diarrhea, abdominal pain, bloating, exhaustion, and depression when they eat foods with gluten. Symptoms can be managed by following a glutenfree diet. Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS): a common intestinal disorder, affects the colon and may cause recurrent abdominal cramps, bloating, constipation, and diarrhea. There is no cure, but IBS symptoms may be treated by changing eating habits, reducing stress, and making lifestyle changes. Cystic fibrosis: is a chronic, inherited illness where the production of abnormally thick mucus blocks the ducts or passageways in the pancreas and prevents its digestive juices from entering the intestines, making it difficult to properly digest proteins and fats. This causes important nutrients to pass out of the body unused. Hepatitis: a condition with many different causes, is when the liver becomes inflamed and may lose its ability to function. Viral hepatitis, such as hepatitis A, B, or C, is highly contagious. Cholecystitis: gallbladder can develop gallstones and become inflamed, uncommon in kids and teens, they can occur in those who have sickle cell anemia or are being treated with certain long-term medications. Digestion: is the breaking down of food in the body, into a form that can be absorbed and used or excreted. 20 Digestion is separated into four separate processes: 1. Ingestion: placing food into the mouth 2. Mechanical digestion & chemical digestion 3. Absorption: movement of nutrients from the digestive system to the circulatory and lymphatic capillaries through osmosis, active transport, and diffusion 4. Egestion: Removal of undigested materials from the digestive tract through defecation Mastication: to tear and crush food, and churning of the stomach. Anus: the opening at the end of the digestive system from which feces (waste) exits the body. bile: a digestive chemical that is produced in the liver, stored in the gall bladder, and secreted into the small intestine. chyme: food in the stomach that is partly digested and mixed with stomach acids. Chyme goes on to the small intestine for further digestion. ileum: the last part of the small intestine before the large intestine begins. jejunum: the long, coiled mid-section of the small intestine; it is between the duodenum and the ileum. liver: a large organ located above and in front of the stomach. It filters toxins from the blood, and makes bile (which breaks down fats) and some blood proteins. mouth: the first part of the digestive system, where food enters the body. Chewing and salivary enzymes in the mouth are the beginning of the digestive process (breaking down the food). pancreas: an enzyme-producing gland located below the stomach and above the intestines. Enzymes from the pancreas help in the digestion of carbohydrates, fats and proteins in the small intestine. Also produces insulin to break down sugar. rectum: the lower part of the large intestine, where feces are stored before they are excreted. stomach: a sack-like, muscular organ that is attached to the esophagus. Both chemical and mechanical digestion takes place in the stomach. When food enters the stomach, it is churned in a bath of acids and enzymes. 21 Diseases and Disorders Cleft palate: a treatable birth defect in which the roof of the mouth (palate) does not develop normally during pregnancy, leaving an opening (cleft) that may go through to the nasal cavity Mumps: a contagious viral infection that can cause painful swelling of the salivary glands, especially the parotid glands, between the ear and the jaw. Pernicious anemia: a decrease in red blood cells that occurs when the body cannot properly absorb vitamin B12 from the gastrointestinal tract. Vitamin B12 is necessary for the formation of red blood cells. Hemorrhoids: swollen veins in the anal canal. This common problem can be painful, but it’s usually not serious. Jaundice: a condition that makes a person’s skin and the white part of the eyes look yellow. It happens because there is too much bilirubin in the blood (hyperbilirubinemia). Bilirubin is a substance that is made when the body breaks down old red blood cells. It usually indicates a problem with the liver. Type 1 diabetes: a disease that develops when the pancreas stops making insulin. Your body needs insulin to break down sugar (glucose) move from the blood into the body's cells, where it can be used for energy or stored for later use. This type requires injections of insulin. Type 2 diabetes: a disease that happens when the cells of the body can't use insulin the right way or when the pancreas can't make enough insulin. Insulin lets blood sugar—also called glucose—enter the body’s cells to be used for energy. When insulin is not able to do its job, the cells can't get the sugar they need, and too much sugar builds up in the blood. Over time, this extra sugar in the blood can damage your eyes, heart, blood vessels, nerves, and kidneys. This type can usually be controlled by changes in diet, exercise, and other medications. 22 Chapter 5 Endocrine System The endocrine system consists of glands which secrete hormones into the blood. These secretions are essential for regulation of many vital body functions such as growth, metabolism, maintaining fluid balance, etc. Thyroid: a small gland, shaped like a butterfly, located in the lower part of the neck. The function of a gland is to secrete hormones. The main hormones released are triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). These thyroid hormones deliver energy to cells of the body. Thyroid Nodules: Lumps in the thyroid gland. Parathyroid glands: small glands of the endocrine system which are located in the neck behind the thyroid. There are four parathyroid glands which are normally the size and shape of a grain of rice. The ONLY purpose s is to regulate the calcium level in our bodies within a very narrow range so that the nervous and muscular systems can function properly Adrenal glands: the triangle-shaped endocrine glands that sit on top of the kidneys. They are responsible for regulating the stress response through the synthesis of corticosteroids and catecholamines, including cortisol and adrenaline Pituitary gland: sometimes called the "master" gland of the endocrine system, because it controls the functions of the other endocrine glands. The pituitary gland is no larger than a pea, and is located at the base of the brain. Pancreas: a gland organ in the digestive and endocrine system of vertebrates. It is both exocrine (secreting pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes) and endocrine (producing several important hormones, including insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin). Diseases and Disorders Hypothyroidism: An underactive thyroid. Symptoms usually go along with a slowdown in metabolism, and can include fatigue, weight gain, and depression, among others. Hyperthyroidism: An overactive thyroid. Symptoms include Goiter, an enlargement of the thyroid, with symptoms that can include a visibly larger neck, Weight Changes, Pregnancy Problems, Temperature Problems, Heart and Blood Pressure Changes, Gastrointestinal Problems, and problems with energy, muscles and joints Goiter: An enlarged thyroid. Thyroid Cancer: Malignant thyroid nodules or tissue. Thyroiditis: Inflammation of the thyroid. 23 Cretinism: congenital condition caused by a deficiency of thyroid hormone during prenatal development and characterized in childhood by dwarfed stature, mental retardation, dystrophy of the bones, and a low basal metabolism. Giantism: excessive size; usually caused by excessive secretion of growth hormone from the pituitary gland Dwarfism: a result of growth hormone deficiency. The deficiency may be genetic or the result of a severe brain injury. When untreated, skeletal growth is extremely slow, and puberty may or may not occur. Development can be normalized with the regular administration of synthetic hormones. 24 Chapter 6 Urinary System The primary function of the urinary system is to carry metabolic wastes from the body in the form of urine. It also regulates the chemical composition of the blood; regulates the fluid and electrolyte balance and volume; helps to maintain the acid-base balance of the body. Kidney: are two bean-shaped organs, each about the size of a fist. They are located in the middle of the back, just below the rib cage, on either side of the spine. The kidneys receive the blood from the renal artery, process it, return the processed blood to the body through the renal vein and remove the wastes and other unwanted substances in the urine - Functions: 1. Regulate the composition of your blood 2. keep the concentrations of various ions and other important substances constant 3. keep the volume of water in your body constant 4. remove wastes from your body (urea, ammonia, drugs, toxic substances) 5. keep the acid/base concentration of your blood constant 6. Help regulate your blood pressure 7. Stimulate the making of red blood cells 8. Maintain your body's calcium levels Ureter: A tube that carries urine down from the kidney to the bladder. There are normally two kidneys so there are accordingly two ureters under normal circumstances, one ureter coming from each kidney conveying urine to the bladder. urinary bladder: a muscular sac located in the pelvis that stores urine and contracts to expel it from the body. The bladder of the adult human can hold over a pint (0.6 liters) of urine. When the level of urine reaches about half this amount, pressure of the accumulating fluid stimulates nervous impulses that relax the external sphincter, a muscle that forms a dense band around the urethra at the base of the bladder. This muscle can be controlled voluntarily. The muscles in the wall of the bladder also contract, forcing urine out through the urethra. uretha: A tube through which urine moves from the urinary bladder out of the body. In the male, the urethra also acts as the passageway for semen. Diseases and Disorders Cystitis: inflammation of the urinary bladder. The condition more often affects women, but can affect either gender and all age groups. It occurs when the normally sterile lower urinary tract (urethra and bladder) is infected by bacteria and becomes irritated and inflamed. It is rare in males. Females are more prone to the development of cystitis because of their relatively shorter urethra—bacteria do not have to travel as far to enter the bladder—and because of the relatively short distance between the opening of the urethra and the anus. Kidney stones: also called renal calculi, are solid concretions (crystal aggregations) of dissolved minerals in urine; calculi typically form inside the kidneys or bladder. Renal calculi can vary in size from as small as grains of sand to as large as a golf ball. Kidney stones typically leave the body by passage in the urine stream, and many stones are formed and passed without causing symptoms. If stones grow to sufficient size before passage they can cause obstruction of the ureter. 25 Enuresis: the inability to maintain urinary control during sleep. Primary enuresis refers to inability to maintain urinary control from infancy. Secondary enuresis is a relapse after control has been achieved. causes by medical disorders like diabetes, urinary tract infection, sleep apnea or epilepsy. Psychiactric disorders can also be a cause Kidney failure: also called renal failure. healthy kidneys clean your blood by removing excess fluid, minerals and wastes. They also make hormones that keep your bones strong and your blood healthy. But if the kidneys are damaged, they don't work properly. Harmful wastes can build up in the body. Blood pressure may rise, the body may retain excess fluid and not make enough red blood cells. This is called kidney failure. If kidneys fail, a treatment is needed to replace the work they normally do. The treatment options are dialysis or a kidney transplant Urinary tract infections (UTIs): caused by bacteria in the urinary tract. Women get UTIs more often than men. UTIs are treated with antibiotics. Drinking lots of fluids also helps by flushing out the bacteria. Urinary incontinence: the loss of bladder control, is the involuntary passage of urine. There are many causes and types of incontinence, and many treatment options. Treatments range from simple exercises to surgery. Women are affected by urinary incontinence more often than men. Urinary retention, or bladder-emptying problems, is a common urological problem with many possible causes. Normally, urination can be initiated voluntarily and the bladder empties completely. Urinary retention is the abnormal holding of urine in the bladder. In males can be caused by an enlarged prostate gland. 26 Chapter 7 Reproductive System The function of the reproductive system requires a number of complex and essential processes which must all be properly working in order for the miracle of reproduction to take place. Gonads: the primary sex organs, produce gametes (sex cells) and sex hormones Male: testes, produce sperm and testosterone Female: ovary, produce oocyte and estrogen/progesterone Female Reproductive system: Ovaries: there are two ovaries, one on each side of the peritoneal cavity (pelvic cavity), just above the brim of the pelvis. Each is close to the open, fringed end of a Fallopian tube, leading to the uterus which lies between and below them. Fallopian tube: either of a pair of slender ducts through which ova pass from the ovaries to the uterus. They extend from the ovary to the uterus and transports ova from the ovary to the cavity of the uterus. Each tube is about 5 in. long; one lies on either side of the uterus and is attached at the upper portion. Ovum: The female reproductive cell. It remains viable in the oviduct for about 1–3 days. If fertilization occurs, the ovum moves into the cavity of the uterus and then implants on its wall. If fertilization fails to occur, the ovum degenerates in the uterus. Ectopic pregnancy: the fertilized egg implants in a location outside the uterus and tries to develop there. The word ectopic means "in an abnormal place or position." The most common site is the fallopian tube. However, ectopic pregnancy can also occur in the ovary, the abdomen, and the cervical canal. This is can be a serious and life-threatening condition. Uterus: A hollow muscular organ located in the pelvic cavity of female mammals in which the fertilized egg implants and develops. Also called womb. It is shaped like an upside-down pear and it is tilted forwards. It lies within the pelvis and is held in place, along with its two extensions, the Fallopian tubes, by ligaments and folds of the peritoneum. The cervix forms the lower third, connected by a narrow isthmus to the main muscular body of the uterus. The nonpregnant uterus weighs 45-60 g and is 7-8 cm long but its weight increases more than ten-fold by the end of pregnancy. Three major functions of the uterus: 1. to prepare a bed for a fertilized ovum 2. to nourish the developing embryo during pregnancy 3. expel (deliver) the fetus Vagina: The passage leading from the opening of the vulva to the cervix of the uterus. Together with the cavity of the uterus, it forms the birth canal. Menstruation: Periodic sloughing of the uterine lining in women of reproductive age. Menstrual bleeding indicates the first day of the menstrual cycle. There is no menstrual bleeding during pregnancy, as the uterine mucosa is needed for the maintenance of pregnancy. Vulva: The external genital organs of the female, including the labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, and vestibule of the vagina. 27 Clitoris: A small elongated erectile organ at the anterior part of the vulva, homologous with the penis. Infundibulum: the ovarian opening of a fallopian tube. Endometrium: The glandular mucous membrane that lines the uterus. Endometriosis: a condition in which bits of the tissue similar to the lining of the uterus (endometrium) grow in other parts of the body. Like the uterine lining, this tissue builds up and sheds in response to monthly hormonal cycles. However, there is no natural outlet for the blood discarded from these implants. Instead, it falls onto surrounding organs, causing swelling and inflammation, pain and dysmenorrhea, Ovum: (plural ova) is a mature egg released at ovulation. In humans only one egg is normally shed, from one of the ovaries, about 14 days after the start of each 28-day menstrual cycle. Diseases and Disorders Menopause: represents the end of menstruation. While technically it refers to the final period, it is not an abrupt event, but a gradual process. Menopause is not a disease that needs to be cured, but a natural life-stage transition. Infertility: the failure to conceive after trying to do so for at least one full year. In primary infertility, pregnancy has never occurred. In secondary infertility, one or both members of the couple have previously conceived, but are unable to conceive again after a full year of trying. Dysmenorrhea: the occurrence of painful cramps during menstruation. Amenorrhea: the absence of menstrual periods 1. Primary amenorrhea is the failure to start having a period by the age of 16. 2. Secondary amenorrhea is more common and refers to either the temporary or permanent ending of periods in a woman who has menstruated normally in the past. Many women miss a period occasionally. Amenorrhea occurs if a woman misses three or more periods in a row. Male Reproductive system: Penis: the organ of the male reproductive system through which semen passes out of the body during sexual intercourse. The penis is also an organ of urination. Scrotum: a superficial skin that holds the testes. It controls the temperature of the testes. In order to be viable, semen must be 3 degrees C lower than the body temperature. When it is cold outside the muscle contract, pulling the testes closer to the body, when hot outside the muscles relax, allowing the testes to hang farther away. Testes: The two organs in the male reproductive system that produce sperm and testosterone. They are oval-shaped, about 1.5 – 2 in. (4 – 5 cm) long that are contained in a sac (scrotum) behind the penis. The cells in the testes are undeveloped in early childhood; at puberty they are stimulated by hormones to develop into fertile sperm cells. Seminiforus tubules: located in the testes, the site of sperm production 28 Interstitial cells: located in the testes, produce testosterone Seminal vesicle: They secrete a significant proportion of the fluid that ultimately becomes semen. About 70% of the seminal fluid originates from the seminal vesicles. Adds nutrient fluid to semen during ejaculation. Prostate Gland: The gland surrounding the urinary passage at the exit of the male bladder. The function of the prostate is to secrete fluid which together with secretions from the seminal vesicles makes up most of the volume of the seminal fluid. Most men remain unaware of their prostate until late middle age when enlargement interferes with urination by constricting the urethra and reducing urine flow. Cowper's gland: Gland that discharges a component of seminal fluid into the urethra that acts as a lubricant. Also known as bulbourethral gland. Duct System: deliver sperm from sight of production to outside 1. epididymis a. store sperm until usage b. mature sperm – gain ability to swim c. ejaculation: smooth muscle contracting that will propel sperm forward through duct system 2. vas deferens a. epididymis to ejaculatory duct 3. ejaculatory duct a. combines with sperm 4. urethra a. conveys both semen and urine Diseases and Disorders Erectile dysfunction: The inability to achieve penile erection or to maintain an erection until ejaculation. Also called impotence. Undescended testes: In the fetus, the testes are in the abdomen. As development progresses, they migrate downward through the groin and into the scrotum. This event takes place late in fetal development, during the eighth month of gestation. In some newborn boys the testes are not present in the scrotum, either because the testes did not descend or because the testes never developed in the fetus. Sexually transmitted disease (STD)/Sexually transmitted infection (STI) Any of various diseases that are usually contracted through sexual intercourse or other intimate sexual contact. STDs can have very painful long-term consequences as well as immediate health problems. They can cause: - birth defects - blindness - bone deformities - brain damage - cancer - heart disease - infertility and other abnormalities of the reproductive system - mental retardation 29 Chlamydia: Caused by the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis, a microscopic organism that lives as a parasite inside human cells. Although over 526,000 cases of chlamydia were reported in the United States in 1997, the CDC estimates that nearly three million cases occur annually because 75% of women and 50% of men show no symptoms of the disease after infection. Approximately 40% of women will develop pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) as a result of chlamydia infection, a leading cause of infertility. Human papillomavirus (HPV): HPV causes genital warts and is the single most important risk factor for cervical cancer in women. Over 100 types of HPV exist, but only about 30 of them can cause genital warts and are spread through sexual contact. In some instances, warts are passed from mother to child during childbirth, leading to a potentially life-threatening condition for newborns in which warts develop in the throat (laryngeal papillomatosis). Genital herpes: Herpes is an incurable viral infection. It is caused by one of two types of herpes simplex viruses: HSV-1 (commonly causing oral herpes) or HSV-2 (usually causing genital herpes). The CDC estimates that 45 million Americans (one out of every five individuals 12 years of age or older) are infected with HSV-2; this number has increased 30% since the 1970s. HSV-2 infection is more common in women (one out of every four women) than men (one out of every five men) and in African Americans (45.9%) than Caucasians (17.6%). Gonorrhea: The bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae is the causative agent of gonorrhea and can be spread by vaginal, oral, or anal contact. The CDC reports that approximately 650,000 individuals are infected with gonorrhea each year in the United States, with 132.2 infections per 100,000 individuals occurring in 1999. Approximately 75% of American gonorrhea infections occur in persons aged 15 to 29 years old. In 1999, 75% of reported gonorrhea cases occurred among African Americans. Syphilis: A potentially life-threatening bacterial infection that increases the likelihood of acquiring or transmitting HIV. In 1998, the CDC reported approximately 38,000 cases of syphilis in the United States; this included 800 cases of congenital syphilis. Congenital syphilis causes irreversible health problems or death in as many as 40% of all live babies born to women with untreated syphilis. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV): In 2000, the CDC reported that 120,223 people in the United States are HIV-positive and 426,350 are living with AIDS. In addition, approximately 1,000-2,000 children are born each year with HIV infection. It is also estimated that 33 million adults and 1.3 million children worldwide were living with HIV/AIDS as of 1999 with 5.4 million being newly infected that year. As of 2001, there is no cure for this STD. 30 Chapter 8 Nervous System The nervous system is made up of three smaller systems, all of which function together to gather information from what is happening around you and gives orders on how your body should react. The high development of the human being’s nervous system is what sets humans apart from other species. Central Nervous System (CNS): refers to the brain and spinal cord. The brain and spinal cord serve as the main "processing center" for the entire nervous system, and control all the workings of the body. Peripheral nervous system (PNS): consists of all parts of the nervous system, except the brain and spinal cord. It connects the central nervous system to the remainder of the body, and is the conduit through which neural signals are transmitted to and from the central nervous system. Autonomic nervous system (ANS): part of the vertebrate nervous system that regulates involuntary action, such as the intestines, heart, and glands, and that is divided into the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. Sympathetic nervous system: from the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord that in general inhibits or opposes the physiological effects of the parasympathetic nervous system, tending to reduce digestive secretions, speeding up the heart, and contracting blood vessels. Parasympathetic nervous system: originating in the brain stem and the lower part of the spinal cord that, in general, inhibits or opposes the physiological effects of the sympathetic nervous system, tending to stimulate digestive secretions, slow the heart, constrict the pupils, and dilate blood vessels. Cerebrum: The large rounded structure of the brain occupying most of the cranial cavity, divided into two cerebral hemispheres. It controls and integrates motor, sensory, and higher mental functions, such as thought, reason, emotion, and memory. Cerebellum: The tri-lobed structure of the brain, that is responsible for the regulation and coordination of complex voluntary muscular movement as well as the maintenance of posture and balance. Brain stem: forms a bridge between cerebrum and spinal cord and also carries the major pathways for signals to pass to and from the cerebellum. Consists of three distinct parts. From top down these are the midbrain; a bridge-like structure, the pons; and the medulla oblongata, which merges with the spinal cord. Vertebrae: The individual bones of the spinal column which are stacked on top of each other. There is a hole in the center of each bone, through which the spinal cord passes. Meninges: the collective term for the three membranes covering the brain and spinal cord. The meninges are composed of the dura mater (outer), the arachnoid (middle), and the pia mater (inner). 31 Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF): The serum-like fluid that circulates through the ventricles of the brain, the cavity of the spinal cord, and the subarachnoid space, functioning in shock absorption. Nerve fiber: (also known as axon) is a long, slender projection of a nerve cell, or neuron, that conducts electrical impulses away from the neuron's cell body Dendrites: the branched projections of a neuron that act to conduct the electrical stimulation received from other neural cells to the cell body of the neuron from which the dendrites project. Electrical stimulation is transmitted onto dendrites by upstream neurons via synapses which are located at various points throughout the dendritic arbor. Synapses: junction across which a nerve impulse passes from an axon terminal to a neuron, muscle cell, or gland cell. Sensory nerves: nerves that receive sensory stimuli, such as how something feels and if it is painful. Motor nerve: a nerve that activates muscles or glands Diseases and Disorders Epilepsy: a condition characterized by recurrent seizures that may include repetitive muscle jerking called convulsions. Seizure: a sudden disruption of the brain's normal electrical activity accompanied by altered consciousness and/or other neurological and behavioral manifestations. Alzheimer's disease (AD): the most common form of dementia, a neurologic disease characterized by loss of mental ability severe enough to interfere with normal activities of daily living, lasting at least six months, and not present from birth. AD usually occurs in old age, and is marked by a decline in cognitive functions such as remembering, reasoning, and planning. Poliomyelitis: also called polio, a highly infectious viral disease that may attack the central nervous system and is characterized by symptoms that range from a mild nonparalytic infection to total paralysis in a matter of hours. Meningitis: a potentially fatal inflammation of the meninges, the thin, membranous covering of the brain and the spinal cord. Most commonly caused by infection (by bacteria, viruses, or fungi), although it can also be caused by bleeding into the meninges, cancer, diseases of the immune system, and an inflammatory response to certain types of chemotherapy or other chemical agents. The most serious and difficult-to-treat types of meningitis tend to be those caused by bacteria. It is a particularly dangerous infection because of the very delicate nature of the brain. Brain cells are some of the only cells in the body that, once killed, will not regenerate themselves. Therefore, if enough brain tissue is damaged by an infection, serious, life-long handicaps will remain. Hydrocephalus: an abnormal expansion of cavities (ventricles) within the brain that is caused by the accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid. Its is the result of an imbalance between the formation and drainage of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) Parkinson's disease (PD): is a progressive movement disorder marked by tremors, rigidity, slow movements (bradykinesia), and posture instability. It occurs when cells in one of the movement-control centers of the brain begin to die for unknown reasons. 32 Chapter 9 Skeletal System There are 206 bones which make up the human skeleton. The skeletal system has many functions Functions of the skeletal system: 1. support – framework 2. protection - protect internal organs (i.e. rib cage, skull) 3. movement – muscles attach 4. mineral storage – calcium, phosphate 5. hematopoiesis – blood cell formation in red bone marrow 6. triglyceride storage – fat, found in yellow bone marrow Long Bone: to be a long bone it must be longer than it is wide Spongy Bone: the type of bone found at the ends of long bones and in the vertebrae. It has a honeycomb structure consisting of small needle-like or flat pieces of mineralized bars called trabeculae, in between which are spaces filled with marrow and fat. Periosteum: The dense fibrous membrane covering the surfaces of bones (except at the joints) and serves as an attachment for muscles and tendons. Marrow: The soft, specialized connective tissue that fills the cavities of bones. One kind of bone marrow is responsible for manufacturing red blood cells in the body. Cartilage: A tough, elastic, fibrous connective tissue found in various parts of the body, such as the joints, outer ear, and larynx. A major constituent of the embryonic and young vertebrate skeleton, it is converted largely to bone with maturation. Compact bone: Hard, dense bone composing the outer cortical layer Tendon: A band of tough, inelastic fibrous tissue that connects a muscle with its bony attachment. Ligament: A strong, flexible connective tissue band usually found between two bony prominences. Axial skeleton: The 80 bones constituting the head and trunk of a vertebrate body. Appendicular skeleton: consisting of 126 bones, makes body movement possible and protects the organs of digestion, excretion, and reproduction. It refers to an appendage or anything attached to a major part of the body, such as the upper and lower extremities. 33 Joints Joints: Where two or more bones come together Functional classification 1. synarthrosis: immovable joints a. example: sutures of the skull 2. amphiorthrosis: slightly movable a. example: tibia and fibula 3. diarthroses: freely movable a. example: elbow and fingers Types of movement 1. gliding: bone surface glides or slips over another a. example: intercarpal (wrist) and intertarsal (ankle) joints 2. angular a. flexion: a decrease in the angle between articulating bones, brings bones closer together i. lateral: movement of the trunk sideways to the right or left at the waist. ii. Dorsiflexion: bending of the foot at the ankle in the direction of the superior surface iii. Plantarflexion: bending the foot at the ankle joint in the direction of the plantar surface b. extension: an increase in the angle between articulating bones, returning to the anatomical positon i. hyperextension: extension past normal c. abduction: movement of a limb away from the midline, also fingers spreading apart d. adduction: movement of a limb toward the midline e. circumduction: movement of the distal end of a part of the body in a circle, occurs as a result of a continuous sequence of flexion, abduction, extension, and adduction. Can only be done with a ball and socket joint. 3. rotational: a bone revolves around its own long longitudinal axis a. medial rotation: anterior surface of a limb bone is turned toward the midline b. lateral rotation: anterior surface of a limb bone turned away from the midline 4. special movements: movements that do not fit into the above categories a. elevation: an upward (superior) movement of a part of the body, lifting a body part superiorly b. depression: a downward (inferior)movement of a part of the body, attached to midline c. protraction: a movement of the body part interiorly in the transverse pain d. retraction: a movement if a protracted part back to the anatomical or original position e. inversion: turns the sole of the foot (at the intertarsal joint) so that it faces medially, the soles face each other f. eversion: turns the soles of the feet (at the intertarsal joint) so that it faces laterally, soles will face away from each other g. supination: rotating the forearm laterally so that the palms face anteriorly or superiorly h. pronation: rotating the arm medially so that the palm faces posteriourly or inferiorly i. opposition: the thumb at the carpometacarpal joint in which the thumb moves across the palm to touch the tips of the finger on the same hand 34 Diseases and Disorders Sprain: stretching of ligaments Strain: tear or stretch of muscle tendon Dislocation: displacement of two bones so that they are no longer lined up Arthritis: inflammation or degeneration of joints 1. rheumatoid arthritis: chronic inflammation, excess fluid, more common in females 2. osteoarthritis: degeneration from wear and tear 3. gouty arthritis: uric acid accumulation in joints that form crystals. More common in males, it is easy to control with medication. Symptoms include inflammation of foot joints. Scoliosis: When viewed from the rear, the spine usually appears perfectly straight. Scoliosis is a lateral (side-to-side) curve in the spine, usually combined with a rotation of the vertebrae Atrophy: Wasting of normally developed tissue or muscle as a result of disuse, ageing, or under-nutrition. Spina bifida: a congenital defect in which the spinal column is imperfectly closed so that part of the meninges or spinal cord protrudes, often resulting in neurological disorders. It ranges from having no or mild effects, to having severe effects and a significant impact upon a person's life. Physical symptoms can include weakness of limbs, paralysis, lack of bowel or bladder control, learning problems, hydrocephalus, seizures, apnea, club-feet, impaired vision, and latex sensitivity. Ossification: The hardening or calcification of soft tissue into a bonelike material. Fracture: a complete or incomplete break in a bone resulting from the application of excessive force. Closed or simple fracture. The bone is broken, but the skin is not lacerated. Open or compound fracture. The skin may be pierced by the bone or by a blow that breaks the skin at the time of the fracture. The bone may or may not be visible in the wound. Transverse fracture. The fracture is at right angles to the long axis of the bone. Greenstick fracture. Fracture on one side of the bone, causing a bend on the other side of the bone. Comminuted fracture. A fracture that results in three or more bone fragments. Why are infections more common with compound fractures than with simple fractures? - a compound fracture is an open fracture so it is exposed to the outside environment while a simple fracture is closed. 35 Chapter 10 Muscular System There are more than 600 muscles in the human body. These muscles account for 40% of the body weight in men and 30% in women. Muscles are made up of bundles of fibers that contract when stimulated by nerve impulses to produce movement. Functions of muscle tissue 1. produce movement: whole body (skeletal), internal organs, blood 2. body posture: stand or sit 3. generate heat: muscle contractions, produce heat (shiver) Functional characteristics of muscle tissue 1. excitability: muscle responds to a stimulus and produces an electrical signal 2. contractility: ability to contract (tissue with shorten/thicken) 3. extensibility: ability to stretch without damage 4. elasticity: ability to return to original shape Skeletal muscle: moves the skeleton and is responsible for all our voluntary movements, as well as for the automatic movements required, for example, to stand, to hold up our head, and to breathe. Smooth muscle: Muscle tissue that contracts without conscious control, found in the walls of the internal organs, such as the stomach, intestine, bladder, and blood vessels, excluding the heart. Cardiac muscle: The specialized striated muscle tissue of the heart. Bursa: A sac or saclike bodily cavity, especially one containing a viscous lubricating fluid and located between a tendon and a bone or at points of friction between moving structures. Tonic contractions: The sustained contraction of a muscle, as is necessary for maintaining posture Isotonic contraction: tension rises and the skeletal muscle's length changes. Lifting an object off a desk, walking, and running involve isotonic contractions. Two types: (1) concentric: In a concentric contraction, the muscle tension exceeds the resistance and the muscle shortens. e.g. the upward movement of a dumbbell in a biceps curl or as you spring back from a jump landing, extending your knees and jumping back up in the air, the quadriceps are shortening as they create force to push you off. (2) eccentric: In eccentric, the muscle lengthens due to force greater than which the muscle can produce. e.g. the downward movement of a dumbbell in a biceps curl or when you land on two feet from a jump and bend your knees the quadriceps are lengthening. Isometric contraction: A contraction in which muscle tension is increased, but the muscle is not shortened because the resistance cannot be overcome. Also known as static contraction. Twitch: A sudden involuntary or spasmodic muscular movement. 36 Diseases and Disorders Bursitis: the painful inflammation of the bursa, a padlike sac found in areas subject to friction. It cushions the movement between the bones, tendons and muscles near the joints. Bursitis is most often caused by repetitive movement and is known by several common names including weaver's bottom, clergyman's knee, and miner's elbow, depending on the affected individual's occupation and area of injury Muscular dystrophy: Any of a group of progressive muscle disorders caused by a defect in one or more genes that control muscle function and characterized by gradual irreversible wasting of skeletal muscle. Atrophy: A wasting or decrease in size of a body organ, tissue, or part owing to disease, injury, or lack of use. Hernia: a general term used to describe a bulge or protrusion of an organ through the structure or muscle that usually contains it. 37 Chapter 11 Integumentary System The Integumentary system provides an outer covering and protection for the human body. It makes up 7% of body weight. Functions of Integumentary System 1. protection 2. thermo regulation a. sweat glands – cooling through evaporation b. blood vessels dilate (open) – heat in blood can escape c. blood vessels constrict (close) - heat body 3. sensation a. nerve endings, hair, touch, pressure 4. energy storage 5. blood reservoir 6. excretion Structure 1. epidermis a. most superficial b. made up of epithelial tissue 2. dermis a. deeper b. made up of connective tissue c. has blood supply 3. hypodermis (subcutaneous layer) a. not part of skin, below dermis b. mainly adipose tissue c. function: energy storage (fats), protection, help connect dermis to underlying muscle, fat storage Cell types 1. keratinocytes: secrete a protein that proved toughness/durability, help protect microbes from getting in 2. melanocytes: produce melanin (pigment) 3. langerhan: immune response 4. merkel: sensation of touch Diseases and Disorders Dermis tear: stretch marks Blister: fluid in between the dermis and epidermis Dermatitis: a general term used to describe inflammation of the skin. 38 Contact dermatitis: a reaction that causes acute itching, redness, swelling, large blisters, and in chronic cases, red, scaly papules (raised bumps) and plaques (abnormal flat areas) Dermatocyst: A cyst of the skin. Dermatorrhea: An excessive secretion of the sebaceous or sweat glands of the skin. Diaphoresis: excessive sweating commonly associated with shock and other medical emergency conditions. Comedo: a black-tipped plug clogging a pore of the skin (blackhead) Ecchymosis: The passage of blood from ruptured blood vessels into subcutaneous tissue, marked by a purple discoloration of the skin. (Frequently called a bruise.) Gangrene: Death and decay of body tissue, often occurring in a limb, caused by insufficient blood supply and usually following injury or disease. Contusion: A bruise that is usually produced by impact from a blunt object and that does not cause a break in the skin. Scabies: A contagious skin disease caused by a parasitic mite (Sarcoptes scabiei) and characterized by intense itching. 39