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CONTENTS
Contents……………………………………………………………………………………….1
Cover page……………………………………………………………………………………..4
SECTION 1 ................................................................................................................................ 5
Noun Clauses.............................................................................................................................. 5
Determiners and quantifiers ..................................................................................................... 10
Quantifiers ............................................................................................................................ 13
Articles ................................................................................................................................. 16
The Definite Article ......................................................................................................... 17
The indefinite Article ....................................................................................................... 19
Cases where articles should not be used .............................................................................. 20
What to use - a/an or the? ..................................................................................................... 22
Common expressions without articles.................................................................................. 23
If Clauses .................................................................................................................................. 24
Zero Conditional .................................................................................................................. 25
The Type 1 Conditional........................................................................................................ 26
The Type 1 Conditional - Alternate forms ........................................................................... 26
The Type 2 Conditional........................................................................................................ 29
The Type 3 Conditional - Alternate forms ........................................................................... 30
The Mixed Conditional ........................................................................................................ 31
Active and Passive Voice ......................................................................................................... 31
Choice of passive structures ................................................................................................. 32
Passive verb forms ............................................................................................................... 32
Verbs not used in the passive ............................................................................................... 35
Passives: Agents ................................................................................................................... 36
Passives: Verbs with two objects ......................................................................................... 37
Passives: Sentences with infinitive and clause objects ........................................................ 37
Passives: Verbs with object + infinitive ............................................................................... 38
Passives: object complements .............................................................................................. 38
Adverbs .................................................................................................................................... 39
Formation of Adverbs .......................................................................................................... 39
Adverbs of Certainty ............................................................................................................ 40
Adverbs of Degree ............................................................................................................... 41
Adverbs of Indefinite Frequency.......................................................................................... 42
Adverbs of Manner............................................................................................................... 43
Adverbs of Place .................................................................................................................. 44
Tenses ....................................................................................................................................... 46
Simple Present (Present Simple) .......................................................................................... 46
The simple present expresses an action in the present taking place once, never or several
times. It is also used for actions that take place one after another and for actions that are set by
a timetable or schedule. The simple present also expresses facts in the present...................... 46
Uses of the simple present tense ...................................................................................... 46
timeless truths ................................................................................................................... 47
series of events ................................................................................................................. 47
here comes etc. ................................................................................................................. 47
talking about the future .................................................................................................... 47
2. The present progressive tense .......................................................................................... 48
formal correspondence ..................................................................................................... 48
Uses of the present progressive tense ............................................................................... 48
3.The present perfect tense ................................................................................................... 50
1
Uses of the present perfect tense ...................................................................................... 50
4.The present perfect progressive tense ............................................................................... 53
5. The simple past tense ....................................................................................................... 55
Uses of the simple past tense ............................................................................................ 55
6. The past progressive tense ................................................................................................ 55
7. The past perfect tense ....................................................................................................... 57
Uses of the past perfect tense ........................................................................................... 57
8. The past perfect progressive tense ................................................................................... 58
9. The simple future tense .................................................................................................... 59
10. The future progressive tense .......................................................................................... 60
11. The future perfect tense .................................................................................................. 61
Modals ...................................................................................................................................... 62
Adjectives ................................................................................................................................. 66
Position of adjectives ........................................................................................................... 67
Adjectives - Attributive position .......................................................................................... 67
Attributive adjectives after nouns ........................................................................................ 67
Adjectives used only in attributive position ......................................................................... 68
Adjectives - Predicative position.......................................................................................... 68
Adjectives used only in predicative position........................................................................ 69
Adjectives: order before nouns ............................................................................................ 70
Kinds of Adjectives .............................................................................................................. 71
Kinds of adjectives ............................................................................................................... 71
Possessive Adjectives ....................................................................................................... 71
Demonstrative Adjectives ................................................................................................ 71
Interrogative Adjectives ................................................................................................... 72
Indefinite Adjectives ........................................................................................................ 72
Adjectives with and .............................................................................................................. 72
Before a noun ................................................................................................................... 73
Relative Clauses ....................................................................................................................... 73
We use relative clauses to give additional information about something without starting
another sentence. By combining sentences with a relative clause, your text becomes more
fluent and you can avoid repeating certain words. ................................................................... 73
How to Form Relative Clauses............................................................................................. 73
Relative Pronouns ................................................................................................................ 74
Subject Pronoun or Object Pronoun? ................................................................................... 75
Relative Adverbs .................................................................................................................. 75
Defining Relative Clauses .................................................................................................... 75
Non-Defining Relative Clauses ............................................................................................ 76
How to Shorten Relative Clauses? ....................................................................................... 76
Gerunds and Infinitives ............................................................................................................ 77
Verbs - Gerund or Infinitive ................................................................................................. 79
SECTION 2 .............................................................................................................................. 80
1. CONTEXT ........................................................................................................................... 80
VERB SEMANTICS ............................................................................................................... 80
2. LINGUISTICS ..................................................................................................................... 80
ASSIGNMENT 1 ................................................................................................................. 81
ASSIGNMENT 2 ................................................................................................................. 81
ASSIGNMENT 3 ................................................................................................................. 82
ASSIGNMENT 4 ................................................................................................................. 83
ASSIGNMENT 5 ................................................................................................................. 83
2
Semantic Components .............................................................................................................. 84
Analysis of some verbs ........................................................................................................ 84
Thematic Roles......................................................................................................................... 87
VOICE ...................................................................................................................................... 91
MODALITY........................................................................................................................... 101
Modal Auxiliary ................................................................................................................. 101
Modal Verbs ....................................................................................................................... 101
Modal or Tense? ................................................................................................................. 102
Modality Markers ............................................................................................................... 102
SENTENCE STRUCTURE ................................................................................................... 103
1. Constituents: ................................................................................................................... 103
1.1. Noun Phrases (NPs) ................................................................................................ 104
The most important element of a string of words as in the boy in the garden, in which boy is
the head of the phrase.( Head is the determiner of the phrase name -English is a head initial/
first, Turkish is a head final/ last language) The head of the NP triggers the agreement rules
imposed on the verb................................................................................................................ 104
1. 2. Prepositional Phrases (PPs) .................................................................................... 104
Phrases are inseparable units; any insertion destroys the nature of the string. .................... 104
In the room/ *the room in ....................................................................................................... 104
After dinner/ *dinner after ...................................................................................................... 104
1.3. Verb Phrases (VPs) ................................................................................................. 104
1.4. Adjective Phrases (APs) .......................................................................................... 104
2. Transitivity and Complementation ................................................................................. 104
3. SENTENCE TYPES ...................................................................................................... 106
SIMPLE SENTENCES: .................................................................................................. 106
COMPLEX SENTENCES ............................................................................................. 106
4. Finiteness in Clauses ...................................................................................................... 115
Examples: ....................................................................................................................... 116
SENTENCE TYPES .............................................................................................................. 117
1. Simple sentences ............................................................................................................ 117
2. Compound Sentences ..................................................................................................... 118
3. Complex sentences ......................................................................................................... 118
4. Compound-complex Sentences ...................................................................................... 118
CLAUSE CONNECTORS ..................................................................................................... 119
1. Subordinators: (Adverbial Clauses) ............................................................................... 119
2. Coordinators: (Transition Signals) ................................................................................. 119
3. Conjunctive Adverbs: ..................................................................................................... 119
Gerund or Present Participle?................................................................................................. 119
REDUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 120
1. Adverbial Clause ............................................................................................................ 120
2. Noun Clauses.................................................................................................................. 120
3. Relative Clauses(Defining Relative Clauses)................................................................. 120
PARTICIPLES ....................................................................................................................... 121
1. Present Participles(Ving) ................................................................................................ 121
2. Past Participles (V3) ....................................................................................................... 121
3. Perfect Participles (having V3) ...................................................................................... 122
ADJECTIVE OR ADVERB? ................................................................................................... 122
PARAGRAPH ANALYSE .................................................................................................... 123
EVALUATION ...................................................................................................................... 124
3
T.C.
Mersin University
English Language Teaching Department
2008–2009 Fall Term
IDE 101-Contextual Grammar
By
MERYEM US
07271009
To
Dönercan DÖNÜK
Mersin
January, 2008
4
SECTION 1
Noun Clauses
See The Sentence for definitions of sentence, clause, and dependent clause.
A sentence which contains just one clause is called a simple sentence.
A sentence which contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses is
called a complex sentence. (Dependent clauses are also called subordinate clauses.)
There are three basic types of dependent clauses: adjective clauses, adverb clauses, and noun
clauses. (Adjective clauses are also called relative clauses.)
This page contains information about noun clauses. Also see Adjective Clauses and Adverb
Clauses.
A. Noun clauses perform the same functions in sentences that nouns do:
A noun clause can be a subject of a verb:
What Billy did shocked his friends.
A noun clause can be an object of a verb:
Billys friends didnt know that he couldn’t swim.
A noun clause can be a subject complement:
Billy’s mistake was that he refused to take lessons.
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A noun clause can be an object of a preposition:
Mary is not responsible for what Billy did.
A noun clause (but not a noun) can be an adjective complement:
Everybody is sad that Billy drowned.
B. You can combine two independent clauses by changing one to a noun clause and
using it in one of the ways listed above.
The choice of the noun clause marker (see below) depends on the type of clause you are
changing to a noun clause:
To change a statement to a noun clause use that:
I know + Billy made a mistake =
I know that Billy made a mistake.
To change a yes/no question to a noun clause, use if or whether:
George wonders + Does Fred know how to cook? =
George wonders if Fred knows how to cook.
To change a wh-question to a noun clause, use the wh-word:
I don’t know + Where is George? =
I don’t know where George is.
C. The subordinators in noun clauses are called noun clause markers. Here is a list of the
noun clause markers:
That, if, whether
Wh-words: how, what, when, where, which, who, whom, whose, why
Wh-ever words: however, whatever, whenever, wherever, whichever, whoever, whomever
6
D. Except for that, noun clause markers cannot be omitted. Only that can be omitted, but
it can be omitted only if it is not the first word in a sentence:
correct:
Billy’s friends didn’t know that he couldn’t swim.
correct:
Billy’s friends didn’t know he couldn’t swim.
correct:
Billy’s mistake was that he refused to take lessons.
correct:
Billy’s mistake was he refused to take lessons.
correct:
That Billy jumped off the pier surprised everyone.
not correct
* Billy jumped off the pier surprised everyone.
E. Statement word order is always used in a noun clause, even if the main clause is a
question:
not correct:
* Do you know what time is it? (Question word order: is it)
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correct:
Do you know what time it is? (Statement word order: it is)
not correct:
* Everybody wondered where did Billy go. (Question word order: did Billy go)
correct:
Everybody wondered where Billy went. (Statement word order: Billy went)
F. Sequence of tenses in sentences containing noun clauses:
When the main verb (the verb in the independent clause) is present, the verb in the noun
clause is:
future if its action/state is later
He thinks that the exam next week will be hard.
He thinks that the exam next week is going to be hard.
present if its action/state is at the same time
He thinks that Mary is taking the exam right now.
past if its action/state is earlier
He thinks that George took the exam yesterday.
When the main verb (the verb in the independent clause) is past, the verb in the noun clause
is:
was/were going to or would + BASE if its action/state is later
He thought that the exam the following week was going to be hard.
He thought that the exam the following week would be hard.
past if its action/state is at the same time
He thought that Mary was taking the exam then.
past perfect if its action/state is earlier
He thought that George had taken the exam the day before.
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If the action/state of the noun clause is still in the future (that is, after the writer has written
the sentence), then a future verb can be used even if the main verb is past.
The astronaut said that people will live on other planets someday.
If the action/state of the noun clause continues in the present (that is, at the time the writer is
writing the sentence) or if the noun clause expresses a general truth or fact, the simple
present tense can be used even if the main verb is past.
We learned that English is not easy.
The boys knew that the sun rises in the east.
G. Here are some examples of sentences which contain one noun clause (underlined) and
one independent clause:
Noun clauses as subjects of verbs:
That George learned how to swim is a miracle.
Whether Fred can get a better job is not certain.
What Mary said confused her parents.
However you learn to spell is OK with me.
Noun clauses as objects of verbs:
We didn’t know that Billy would jump.
We didn’t know Billy would jump.
Can you tell me if Fred is here?
I don’t know where he is.
George eats whatever is on his plate.
Noun clauses as subject complements:
The truth is that Billy was not very smart.
The truth is Billy was not very smart.
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The question is whether other boys will try the same thing.
The winner will be whoever runs fastest.
Noun clauses as objects of prepositions:
Billy didn’t listen to what Mary said.
He wants to learn about whatever is interesting.
Noun clauses as adjective complements:
He is happy that he is learning English.
We are all afraid that the final exam will be difficult.
Determiners and quantifiers
Determiners are words like a, my, this, those, each, either, some, few, all and both. They
come at the beginning of noun phrases, but they are not adjectives.
a new book
every week
some rice
enough trouble
my mother
English grammar recognises two main groups of determiners . Group A and Group B.
Group A determiners
Articles, demonstratives and possessives are often called Group A determiners. They help to
identify things.
10
Articles - a, an, the
Demonstratives - this, that, these, those
Possessives - my, our, your, their, her, his, its, one s, whose
Two Group A determiners cannot be put together. We can say my car, this car or the car,
but not the my car, this my car or my this car.
If we have to put two Group A determiners together, we use the structure a/this + noun + of
mine/yours.

this car of mine

a friend of yours
Group B Determiners
Most of them indicate something about quantity.
Examples are:

some, any, no

each, every, either, neither

much, many, more, most

a little, less, least

a few, fewer, fewest

all, both, half

what, whatever, which, whichever

one, two, three etc.
We can put two Group B determiners together, if the combination makes sense.

We meet every few days.

Have you got any more rice?
Group B + Group A
Group B determiners can be used directly before nouns without of.
11

Have they got any children?

Most people love children.
But if we want to put a Group B determiner before a noun with a Group A determiner, we
have to use of.
Compare:

some children

some of the children

neither method

neither of these methods

most plants

most of the plants
Points to be noted
We can leave out of after all, both and half when they are followed by nouns.

all my friends OR all of my friends

both (of) my parents

half (of) her income
But note that we cannot leave out of when all, both and half are followed by pronouns.

all of us (NOT all us)

both of them (NOT both them)
No and every are not used before of; instead we use none and every one.

no children

none of the children

every child

every one of the children
Group A + Group B
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Certain Group B determiners can be used after Group A determiners. They are: many, most,
least, little and few.

a little time

his many ideas

a few questions

the most Money
Quantifiers
Singular
Plural
Uncountable
nouns (C)
nouns (C)
nouns (U)
all
-
Yes
Yes
any
-
Yes
Yes
both
-
Yes
-
each
Yes
-
-
enough
-
Yes
Yes
every
Yes
-
-
few/a few/fewer
-
Yes
-
little/a little/less
-
-
Yes
many
-
Yes
-
more
-
Yes
Yes
some
-
Yes
Yes
a lot of
-
Yes
Yes
Quantifier
Quantifiers are used at the beginning of noun phrases:

before a noun on its own: fewer answers

before an adjective and noun: some useful phrases

before an adverb, adjective and noun: every really pleasant experience
13
Normally two quantifiers cannot be used together before the same noun. However, the
quantifiers all and both are found immediately before the or a possessive pronoun: all my
relatives, both the ministers. You will also see the following combinations of quantifiers:

a little less noise

a few more questions

every few minutes
Many, much, a lot of
These are all used to talk about a large quantity of something; many is used only with C
nouns, much with U nouns and a lot of can be used with both.
Only many and much can be preceded by the words how, to form questions (how many / how
much ...?). The word too can be used to express a negative idea (too hot, too cold) and so, to
show the speaker's attitude to the quantity (so many that ... /so much he couldn't ...). Many and
much tend to be rather formal in use and are therefore often found in legal documents,
academic papers and so on; in speech we often use phrases like a lot of, loads of, tons of,
hundreds of.
Few, little
Again, the meaning of these two words is similar since they both refer to small quantities,
except that few is found with C nouns and little with U nouns.
If they are used without the indefinite article, a, they have the sense of not enough and are
negative in feeling (few events, little interest) but these are quite formal and we would
normally prefer not many events and not much interest.
When few and little are used witha they simply mean a small quantity with no extra negative
overtones: a few events (i.e. three or four) and a little interest (i.e. some interest, but not a lot).
Any
Any can be used before countable and uncountable nouns usually in questions and negative
sentences:
14

Are you bringing any friends with you?

Do you have any coffee?

I can't remember any songs.

He isn't taking any chances.
If we stress the word any heavily when speaking, we are suggesting an unlimited choice from
a range of things or an unrestricted quantity; in this case its use is not confined to just
questions and negatives:

Help yourself to any sandwiches. (the choice is yours)

Don't you like any Beatles song? (I can't believe you dislike them all)

I can't see any difference. (nothing at all)
Some
Some is usually thought of as the positive counterpart to any in many circumstances.

I'm bringing some friends with me.

I have some coffee.
Like any it is used before both C and U nouns, and means an indefinite quantity but not a
large amount. The general rule given above for the use of any in negative sentences and
questions does not always hold in requests and offers where we often use some to mean a
small amount of a known quantity:

Would you like some cake? (here is the cake, do you want a piece of it?)

Could I have some biscuits instead? (any would not be possible in this case)
If we stress the word some in positive and negative sentences and in questions, we are
suggesting a limited quantity or number of something:
I like some Beatles songs. (but certainly not all)

I can see some difference. (but not a lot)
15
Articles
The articles a/an (the indefinite article) and the (the definite article) belong to a group of
words called determiners. They normally go at the beginning of noun phrases.

Alice is a financial advisor.

She is working for an insurance company.

I have been to the doctor.

Can I talk to the manager?
What are articles used for?
Articles are used to show whether we are talking about things that are known both to the
speaker and to the listener, or that are not known to them both. Articles can also show
whether we are talking about things in general or particular things.
Points to be noted
A singular countable noun normally has an article or other determiner (my, this, her, some
etc.) with it. We can say a dog, my dog, that dog or every dog, but not just dog.

I saw a child in the store.

They have a house in the city.

Can I use your car?

He is my friend.

Who is that boy in the red shirt?
Plural and uncountable nouns can be used with or without an article or other determiner.

Children usually rush about.

Milk is rich in nutrients.

Is there any milk in the bottle?

Water is precious.

Time is money.
16
The Definite Article
The is called the definite article because it is used to refer to a particular person or thing.

Call the man waiting outside.

Revenge is the main theme of this play.
Uses
To talk about a person/thing already mentioned
When a person/thing has been mentioned earlier, the definite article is used in later references
to that particular person/thing.

I saw a beggar near the bus stop; the fellow came to me with outstretched hands.
To talk about a person/thing known to the listener
We use the definite article (the) before a noun when we expect the listener/reader to know
which particular person(s) or thing(s) we are talking about.

Can I talk to the manager? (The listener knows which person is meant.)

I have been to the doctor. (Which doctor? My doctor.)

The book you want is out of print. (Which book? The one you want.)

The child was crying. (Which child? The one I met in the store.)

Let us go to the park. (Which park? The one in the town.)
To talk about unique things or events
We use the to talk about unique things or events.

The French Revolution began in 1789. (Unique: because there has been only one
French revolution.)

The Nile is the longest river in the world.
Most nouns that represent things that are the only ones of their kind also take the before them.
17
Examples are: the sun, the moon, the earth, the city, the Nile, the country, the sea, the weather
etc.
This use of the is possible even when we are talking about somebody/something that the
listener knows nothing about?

You dont know the Hiltons, do you? (The use of the makes it clear that there is only
one Hilton family in the speakers social environment.)
With expressions referring to our physical environment
The is used in a number of expressions referring to our physical environment.
Examples are: the town, the weather, the rain, the wind, the country, the sunshine, the sea, the
city etc.

I prefer the country to the city.

The earth is the only planet that supports life.
With adjectives referring to a particular class of people
We use the before certain adjectives referring to a particular class of people.
Examples are: the blind, the dead, the poor, the disabled etc.

The rich are not always happy.

The accused was sent on bail.

The educated should teach the illiterate.
With superlatives
Superlative adjectives take the before them.

She is the eldest member in the family.

The Nile is the longest river in the world.
With singular nouns that represent a whole class
18
We use the before a singular noun when it is used to represent the whole class of things to
which it belongs.

The lotus is a lovely flower.

Can the leopard change its spots?

The camel is the ship of the desert.
The indefinite Article
The indefinite article a/an is used to talk about one particular person or thing when the
listener does not know which one is meant, or when it does not matter which one.

She married an old man.

They have a big house in the city.

You had better consult a doctor.

I saw a hawker selling his wares on the street.

A man came and knocked at the door.
A/an is also used to talk about any one member of a class.

A teacher must have patience. (=any teacher)

A spider has eight legs. (=any spider)

A dog is faithful to its master.

A parrot can repeat what you say.
Cases where the indefinite article should not be used
With plural and uncountable nouns
The indefinite article cannot used before plural and uncountable nouns.

Apples are red.

Computers are expensive.

Time is money.
With possessives
19
We cannot use the indefinite article with possessives. We use double possessives instead.

He is a friend of mine. (NOT He is a my friend.)
With adjectives without nouns
We cannot use the indefinite article with an adjective alone (without a noun).

She is a beautiful girl.

She is beautiful. (NOT She is a beautiful.)
Cases where articles should not be used
With uncountable nouns
Articles are not used with uncountable nouns when we make general statements.

I love coffee. (NOT... a coffee OR the coffee)

Milk is rich in nutrients. (NOT The milk OR a milk)

We can't do without water. (NOT The water OR a water)

She likes reading books. (NOT...the reading books OR a reading books)
With the names of countries
We do not use articles with the names of countries.

Japan is a developed nation. (NOT The Japan)

I have been to England. (NOT...to the England)

India is a secular republic. (NOT The India)

He has just returned from South Africa. (NOT the South Africa)
But we use 'the' if the name of the country or organization specifically states that it is a
collection of states. (For example, The United States, The United Arab Emirates, The United
Nations etc.)

He is leaving for the United States tomorrow.

The United Nations is an international organization of countries created to promote
world peace and cooperation.
20
With the names of languages
We do not use articles with the names of languages.

Hindi is the national language of India.

It is not easy to learn French.

English is spoken in many parts of the world.
With the names of meals
We do not use articles with the names of meals.

We have lunch at midday. (NOT...the lunch)

We have dinner in the evening. (NOT...the dinner)

Breakfast is the first meal of the day. (NOT...the breakfast)
With proper nouns
We do not use articles with proper nouns (the names of people, places etc.)

Alice is an architect. (NOT The Alice or a Alice)

Mary is my friend. (NOT The Mary)

Delhi is the capital of India.
But we use 'the' with plural names.

We are having dinner with the Smiths.

The Sharmas are very kind.
With titles and names
We do not use articles with titles and names.

Princess Diana was killed in a car accident.

President Kennedy was assassinated.
But we say, the queen of England, the President of USA
21
With years
We do not use articles before years.

India won freedom in 1947. (NOT...in the 1947)

I was born in 1979.
With possessives and demonstratives
We do not use articles before possessives (my, your, their etc.) and demonstratives (this,
that, these, those).

This is my book. (NOT This is a my book.)

I like this car. (NOT I like the this car.)
With days
Articles are not used to talk about the coming or last day/month.

See you on Friday. (=Coming Friday)

We are leaving for the US next week. (NOT the next week.)
But we use articles with the names of days of the week and months if we are talking about
particular days or months.

We met on a rainy Friday.

It was a wet Monday in May.

She died on the Thursday after the accident.
What to use - a/an or the?
The indefinite article a/an is used to talk about one particular person or thing when the
listener does not know which one is meant.

I saw a child in the toy store.

She married an old man.
The definite article is used when the listener knows which particular person or thing is meant.
22

The child was crying. (You know which child - the one I met in the toy store.)

I went to the doctor yesterday.

The girl who answered the phone was polite. (You know which girl - the one who
answered the phone.)
The first time you speak of something/somebody use a/an, the next time you repeat the same
noun use the.
To talk about things in general, we normally use a singular countable noun with a/an.

A spider has eight legs.

An apple is red.
Note that we can also use a plural noun with no article to make a general statement.

Children need love.

Spiders have eight legs.

Teachers must have patience.

Apples are red.

Computers are expensive.
Sometimes we use a singular noun with the to make general statements. This is particularly
common before the names of instruments and inventions.

Who invented the computer?

I would like to learn the violin.
Common expressions without articles
In some common fixed expressions to do with place, time and movement, normally countable
nouns are treated as uncountables, without articles. Examples are:
To/at/in/from school
To/at/from university/college (GB)
To/in/from college (US)
To/at/in/into/from church
To/in/into/out of bed/prison
23
To/in/into/out of hospital (GB)
To/at/from work
To/at sea
To/in/from town
At/from home
Leave/start/enter school/university/college
By day
At night
By car/bus/bicycle/plane/train/tube/boat
On foot
By radio/phone/letter/mail
With place nouns, similar expressions with articles may have different meanings.
Compare:

I met her at college. (When we were students)

I met her at the college. (The college is just a meeting place.)
In American English, university and hospital are not used without articles.
If Clauses
If clauses are usually used to talk about uncertain events and situations. They often refer to a
condition - something which must happen first, so that something else can happen.

If you love me, I will love you.

If you study well, you will pass the exam.

If you marry me, I will make you my queen.

If you don't hurry up, you will be late.
Clauses of this kind are often called conditional clauses. There are four main types of
conditional clauses in English. They are:
1. Zero conditional
24
2. Type 1 conditional
3. Type 2 conditional
4. Type 3 conditional
Position of an if clause
An if-clause can come at the beginning or end of a sentence. When an if-clause begins a
sentence, we use a comma to separate it from the rest of the sentence.
Compare:

I will phone you if I have time.

If I have time, I will phone you.
Leaving out If
In a formal or literary style if can be dropped and an auxiliary verb put before the subject.
This is common with had, should and were.

Were I you I would accept the offer. (= If I were you I would accept the offer.)

Had he not received her help he wouldn't have become a millionaire. (= If he had not
received...)

Zero Conditional
Here we use a simple present in both clauses.

If you give respect, you get respect.

If you heat ice, it melts.

If I am late, my father takes me to school.

If he comes to town, we have dinner together.
25
The Zero Conditional is used to talk about situations that are always true if something
happens. They are also used to talk about general truths.
In most cases, it is possible to replace a zero conditional by a time clause using when.

When you heat ice, it melts.

When I am late, my father takes me to school.

When he comes to town, we have dinner together.

When you give respect, you get respect.
The Type 1 Conditional
Here we use a simple present in the if-clause and a simple future in the result clause.

If you want, I will talk to him.

If I see her, I will give her your love.

If you finish on time, we will go to the movies.

If it rains, the match will be cancelled.

You will be late if you don't hurry up.

I will buy a car if I get my rise.
The Type 1 conditional refers to the present or future time. Here the situation is real and
possible. It is used to talk about a possible condition and its probable result.
The Type 1 Conditional - Alternate forms
Future in both clauses
Sometimes we use a future tense in both clauses. This is particularly common in polite
requests.

If you will marry me, I will love you forever. (More polite than 'If you marry me’)

If you will wait for me, I will come with you.
26

If you will help us, we will be grateful.
Here will means ' is/are willing to'. In more polite requests we can use would.

If you would help us, we will be extremely grateful.

If you would come this way, I will take you to the theatre.
Going to in result clause
Going to often replaces will in the type 1 conditional. This is done to emphasize a certain
result.

If you skip your classes, you are going to fail.

If you don't mend your ways, you are going to land in trouble.
Going to can be used in the if-clause to mean 'intend to'.

If you are going to skip school, you certainly won't pass your exams.
Present perfect in if-clause
Sometimes we use a present perfect, instead of a simple present, in the if-clause. This is to
put an extra focus on the completion of an action.
Compare:

We will go to the movies if you have finished your work. (There is a focus on the
completion of the action.)

We will go to the movies if you finish your work. (There is no focus on the
completion of the action.)
Should in if-clause
Should is sometimes used in the if-clause to imply that something is possible, but not very
likely.

If he should arrive, we will invite him along to dinner. (He will probably not come.
But if he comes, we will invite him to dinner.)
27
This use of should in the type 1 conditional is stronger than the type 2 conditional in which
an imaginary or unreal situation is presented.
Compare:

If he arrives, we will invite him along to dinner. (Type 1 conditional - He is likely to
come. And if he comes we will invite him to dinner.)

If he arrived, we would invite him to dinner. (Type 2 conditional - I am sure he will
not come.)

If he studied, he would pass the exam. (Type 2 Conditional - I am sure the student
will not pass.)

If he studies, he will pass the exam. (Type 1 conditional - He will probably study.
And if he does he will pass.)

If he should study, he will pass the exam. (Type 1 conditional with should - The
student will probably not study. But if he does he will pass.)
Happen to/ should happen to
We sometimes use happen to or should happen to in If- clauses. It suggests that something
is unlikely, but if it happens, something else will happen.

If they happen to come to town, we will meet them. (= They are unlikely to come.
But if they come, we will meet them.)
Should happen to has a similar meaning.

If he should happen to get stuck in that town, he will be able to find a good hotel.
Modals in result clauses
We can use modals in result clauses to talk about future possibilities, permission and advice.

If you finish your work, you can go out and play.

You should see a doctor if you continue to feel bad.

If I arrive early, I might give him a call.
Provided (that), as long as
28
Provided that and as long as can be used instead of if to say that a particular condition must
be met in order for something to happen.

Provided (that) he finishes his studies, he will find an excellent job.
(= If he finishes his studies, he will find an excellent job.)

As long as you pay off the loan, the house will be yours at the end of this year. (= If
you pay off the loan, the house will be yours at the end of this year.)

The Type 2 Conditional
Here we use a simple past in the if-clause and would + infinitive (bare form of the verb) in
the result clause.

If you asked, they would help you.

If it rained, you would get wet.

If you loved her, she would love you.

If I had more money, I would buy a new car.

If he studied more, he would pass the exam.

If I were the President, I would lower taxes.
The type 2 conditional refers to present and future situations. It is used to talk about unreal impossible, improbable or imaginary - situations. It refers to an unlikely or hypothetical
condition and its probable result.
Type 1 or type 2 - What to use?
Real and imaginary situations
The type 1 conditional is often called the real conditional. It is used for real and possible
situations. The type 2 conditional is used for unreal - impossible, improbable or imaginary situations.
Compare:
29

If I become the President, I will give free electricity to farmers. (Said by a candidate,
who may win the election - Type 1)

If I win this race, I will... (- Said by the fastest runner - Type 1)

If I became the President, I would give free electricity to farmers. (Said by a child Type 2)

If I won this race, I would... (- Said by the slowest runner - Type 2)
Direct requests and suggestions
In direct request or suggestions we use type 1 conditional. To make a request or suggestion
more polite, we use type 2 conditional.
Compare:

I will be grateful if you lend me some money. (direct request - Type 1)

It will be nice if you help me. (direct request - Type 1)

It would be nice if you helped me. (less direct, more polite request - Type 2)

I would be grateful if you lent me some money. (more polite request - Type 2)
The Type 3 Conditional - Alternate forms
Here we use a past perfect in the if-clause and would have + past participle in the result
clause.

If I had won that award, my life would have changed.

If she had studied science, she would have found a better job.
The Type 3 Conditional is used to talk about past situations that did not happen.

If you had invited them they would have come. (You did not invite them and
therefore they did not come.)

If you had worked harder you would have passed the exam. (You did not work hard
and therefore you did not pass.)
30
The Mixed Conditional
There are two types of mixed conditional sentences. One of them states the present result of a
past condition and the other state the past result of a present or continuing condition.
Present result of a past condition
Here we use a past perfect in the if-clause and would + infinitive in the main clause.

If I had accepted that job I would be a millionaire now.

If I had married him I would live happy now.
In these sentences the time is past in the If-clause and present in the main clause. They refer
to an unreal past condition and its probable result in the present.
Past result of a present or continuing condition
Here we use a simple past in the If clause and would have + past participle in the main
clause.

If I didn't love him I wouldn't have married him. (= I love him and that is why I
married him.)

If I were invited I would have come. (= I was not invited. Therefore I did not go)
They refer to an unreal present situation and its probable (but unreal) past result.

If I were a good cook, I would have invited them to lunch. (= I am not a good cook
so I can't invite them to lunch.)

If I knew English, I would have got a better job.
Active and Passive Voice
When we say what people and things do, we use active verb forms. When we say what
happens to people and things - what is done to them - we often use passive verb forms.

They built this house in 1960. (active)

This house was built in 1960. (passive)
31

This book will change your life. (active)

Your life will be changed by this book. (passive)
The object of an active verb corresponds to the subject of a passive verb.

They built this house (object) in 1960.

This house (subject) was built in 1960.
In most cases, the subject of an active verb is not mentioned in the corresponding passive
sentence. If it does have to be mentioned, this usually happens in an expression with by.

This house was built in 1960 by Sir John Elton.
Choice of passive structures
We use passive structures when we want to talk about an action, but are not interested in
stating who or what does/did it.

Promises should be kept. (passive)

Smoking must be banned. (passive)

This house was built in 1990.

The house is being painted.
Some verbs can be used in both active and passive forms with similar meanings. Examples
are: to worry/to be worried; to drown/to be drowned.
Sometimes active and passive infinitives can be used with very similar meanings.

There is a lot of work to do.

There is a lot of work to be done.
Passive verb forms
Simple Present
32
Active verb form: write/writes

He writes a letter.

I write letters.
Passive verb form: is/am/are + written

A letter is written by him.

Letters are written by me.
Present Progressive
Active verb form: is/am/are + writing

He is writing a letter.

I am writing letters.
Passive verb form: is/am/are + being + written

A letter is being written by him.

Letters are being written by me.
Present Perfect
Active verb form: has/have + written

He has written a letter.

I have written letters.
Passive verb form: has/have + been + written

A letter has been written by him.

Letters have been written by me.
Simple Past
Active verb form: wrote

He wrote a letter.
33

I wrote letters.
Passive verb form: was/were + written

A letter was written by him.

Letters were written by me.
Past Progressive
Active verb form: was/were + writing

He was writing a letter.

I was writing letters.
Passive verb form: was/were + being + written

A letter was being written by him.

Letters were being written by me.
Past Perfect
Active verb form: had + written

He had written a letter.

I had written letters.
Passive verb form: had + been + written

A letter had been written by him.

Letters had been written by me.
Simple Future
Active verb form: will/shall + write

He will write a letter.

I shall write letters.
Passive verb form: will/shall + be + written
34

A letter will be written by him.

Letters shall be written by me.
Future Perfect
Active verb form: will/shall + have + written

He will have written a letter.

I will have written letters.
Passive verb form: will/shall + have + been + written

A letter will have been written by him.

Letters will have been written by me.
Perfect progressive passives and future progressive passives are unusual.
Verbs not used in the passive
Not all verbs can have passive forms. Passive structures are not possible with intransitive
verbs like die, cry or arrive, which cannot have objects.

He died yesterday. (passive)

The baby cried aloud. (passive)
Some transitive verbs, too, are seldom used in the passive. Most of these verbs refer to
states, not actions. Examples are: have, lack, resemble, suit etc.

I have a house in the city. (BUT NOT A house is had by me.)

My shirt doesn't fit me. (BUT NOT I am not fitted by my shirt.)

You lack tact. (BUT NOT Tact is lacked by you.)

She resembles an angel. (BUT NOT An angel is resembled by her.)
Some prepositional verbs are mainly used in the active. Examples are: walk into, agree
with.

We walked into the room. (BUT NOT The room was walked into by us.)

She agreed with me. (BUT NOT I was agreed with by her.)
35
Passives: Agents
In most cases, the subject of an active verb (the agent) is not mentioned in the corresponding
passive sentence. If it does have to be mentioned, we usually use an expression with by.

They gave me a warm welcome. (active)

I was given a warm welcome by them. (passive)

Children love toys. (active)

Toys are loved by children. (passive)

They built this house. (active)

This house was built by them.

Her attitude shocked me.

I was shocked by her attitude.
It should be noted that by is not the only word with which the agent can be introduced. After
the past participles of some 'stative “ verbs (verbs which refer to states, not actions) other
prepositions can be used instead of by.

The state of his health worries me. (active)

I am worried about the state of his health. (passive)

Snakes scare me. (active)

I am scared of snakes. (passive)
With is used when we talk about an instrument which is used by an agent to do an action.

He killed the snake with a stick. (active)

The snake was killed (by him) with a stick. (passive)
36
Passives: Verbs with two objects
Many verbs can be followed by two objects - an indirect object and a direct object. The
indirect object usually refers to a person and the direct object usually refers to a thing. Two
structures are possible.

She gave me (indirect object) a nice gift (direct object).

She gave a nice gift (direct object) to me (indirect object).
Both these structures can be made passive.

I was given a nice gift (by her). (Indirect object becomes subject.)

A nice gift was given to me (by her). (Direct object becomes subject.)
Another example is given below.

They lent me (indirect object) ten thousands pounds (direct object).

They lent ten thousand pounds to me.

I was lent ten thousand pounds. (passive)

Ten thousand pounds were lent to me. (passive)
Common verbs that are followed by two objects include give, send, show, lend, pay,
promise, refuse, tell and offer.
Passives: Sentences with infinitive and clause objects
Some sentences have infinitives or clauses as their objects. Passive structures are not
normally possible with these sentences.

He thought that she was the right woman for the job. (BUT NOT That she was the
right woman for the job was thought by him.)

I hoped to meet him. (BUT NOT To meet him was hoped by me.)

People say that their marriage is in trouble. (BUT NOT That their marriage is in
trouble is said by people.)
However, most of these structures can be made passive if it is used as a preparatory subject
for the clause.
37

It was thought that she was the right woman for the job.

It is said that their marriage is in trouble.
Passives: Verbs with object + infinitive
Most verbs can be followed by object + infinitive. Most of these structures can be made
passive.

I told them to behave. (active)

They were told to behave. (passive)

I asked him to send me a letter. (active)

He was asked to send me a letter. (passive)

They thought him to be a traitor. (active)

He was thought to be a traitor. (passive)
Note
All active verbs cannot be followed by object + infinitive. The verb say is one of them. With
say the infinitive structure is only possible in the passive.

Their marriage is said to be in trouble. (BUT NOT People say their marriage to be in
trouble.)
Passives: object complements
After some verbs the direct object can be followed by an object complement a noun or
adjective which describes or classifies the object.

They elected him their leader.

The other children called her stupid.

We all regarded her as an expert.

Queen Victoria considered him a genius.
When these clauses are made passive, these objects complements become subject
complements; they come after the verb.
38

He was elected their leader.

She was called stupid by the other children.

She was regarded as an expert.

He was considered a genius by Queen Victoria.
Adverbs
Adverbs are words like tomorrow, daily, badly, once and too. They tell us more about other
words, especially verbs.

The child smiled sweetly. (The adverb sweetly modifies the verb smiled.)

She walked slowly. (The adverb slowly modifies the verb walked.)

He talked politely. (The adverb politely modifies the verb talked.)
Sometimes adverbs modify adjectives.

It was a very important question. (The adverb very modifies the adjective important.)

You are so sweet. (The adverb so modifies the adjective sweet.)
Adverbs can also modify other adverbs.

He walked very slowly. (The adverb very modifies the adverb slowly.)

She sang extremely well. (The adverb extremely modifies the adverb well.)
Formation of Adverbs
Most adverbs are formed by adding -ly to their corresponding adjectives. Examples are:
kindly (kind), slowly (slow), hardly (hard), sweetly (sweet) etc.

She is very beautiful (adjective).

She is beautifully (adverb) dressed.
39

He is a strange (adjective) person.

He behaved strangely (adverb).
Points to be noted
1. If the adjective ends in -y, replace it with -i and then add -ly.
Adjective
Adverb
Happy
happily
Angry
angrily
Lucky
luckily
2. If the adjective ends in -able, -ible, or -le, replace the -e with -y.
Adjective
Adverb
probable
probably
gentle
gently
humble
humbly
3. If the adjective ends in –ic, add -ally.,
Adjective
Adverb
basic
basically
economic
economically
This rule, however, has an exception. The adverb formed from public is publicly, and not
publically.
Adverbs of Certainty
Adverbs of certainty express how certain or sure we feel about an action or event.
Common examples are: certainly, definitely, probably, undoubtedly, clearly, obviously etc.
40

He is undoubtedly a great leader.

There is clearly something wrong.

She is definitely taller than you.
Position
Adverbs of certainty usually go in mid position. They are placed after auxiliary verbs and
before other verbs. When there are two or more auxiliaries, the adverb goes after the first.

He is undoubtedly a great leader. (is/am/are/was/were + adverb)

She will probably come. (auxiliary verb + adverb + main verb)

It will certainly rain this evening. (auxiliary verb + adverb + main verb)

I certainly feel better today. (adverb + main verb)

You have definitely been working too hard. (first auxiliary + adverb + second
auxiliary + other verb)
Exceptions
Perhaps and may be are exceptions to this rule. They usually go at the beginning of a clause.

Perhaps she will come.

May be you are right.
Adverbs of Degree
Adverbs of Degree tell us about the degree or extent of an action, quality or manner.
Examples are: almost, little, enough, much, too, partly, fully, so, rather, quite, nearly, just, too,
hardly, scarcely, very etc.

She is very beautiful.

I am extremely sorry.

She is quite strong.

They are fully prepared.
Position
41
Adverbs of degree normally come in mid position with the verb. They are placed after the
auxiliary verbs and before other verbs. If there are two auxiliary verbs, the adverb comes after
the first.

He had hardly begun. (auxiliary verb + adverb + main verb)

My work is almost finished. (is/am/are/was/were + adverb)

I just asked. (adverb + main verb)

She hardly realized what she was doing. (adverb + main verb)

He is entirely right. (is/am/are/was/were + adverb)

She was rather busy. (is/am/are/was/were + adverb)
An adverb of degree qualifying an adjective or another adverb normally goes before it.

She is very beautiful.

Those mangoes were very sweet.

I am extremely sorry.
Enough is an exception to this rule. It is placed after the adjective or adverb it qualifies.

You are not old enough to marry.

This is good enough to be true.
Adverbs of Indefinite Frequency
Adverbs of indefinite frequency tell us how often something happens.
Common examples are: always, ever, usually, normally, often, frequently, seldom, never etc.

I am never late for office.

Have you ever been to the US?

I often work late.
Position
Adverbs of indefinite frequency go in mid position. They are normally placed after the
auxiliary verbs and before other verbs. When there are two auxiliary verbs, the adverb goes
after the first.
42

I always get up early. (adverb + main verb)

I am seldom late for work. (is/am/are/was/were + adverb)

We frequently visit them. (adverb + main verb)

I often read comics. (adverb + main verb)

I have never seen a dolphin. (auxiliary verb + adverb + main verb)
Points to be noted
1. Usually, normally, often, frequently, sometimes and occasionally can also go at the
beginning or end of a clause.

We visit them occasionally.

Often we trust the wrong person.
2. Always, ever, rarely, seldom and never can go only in mid position.

They never admitted their fault.

You can always trust him.
However, always and never can begin imperative clauses.

Always look before you leap.

Never ask her about her age.
Adverbs of Manner
Adverbs of manner say how something happens or is done.
Examples are: happily, angrily, slowly, carefully, fast etc.

She walked slowly.

John drove carefully.

The soldiers fought bravely.
Position
Adverbs of manner normally go in end position (at the end of a clause).
43

She sang well.

He talked loudly.

She walked slowly.

He managed it skillfully.

She speaks English well.
An adverb of manner modifying an adjective or another adverb normally goes before it.

She is seriously ill.

I was terribly busy.
Points to be noted
1. Adverbs of manner can come in mid position if the adverb is not important to the meaning
of the verb.

She angrily tore up the letter. (The manner in which she tore up the letter is not
important.)

His health slowly began to improve.
2. If there is a preposition before the object, we can place the adverb either before the
preposition or after the object.

The man walked happily towards his home.

The man walked towards his home happily.
3. To emphasize the point, sometimes, an adverb of manner is placed before the main verb.

He gently woke up the woman.
4. Some writers put adverbs of manner at the beginning of a sentence to catch our attention.

Happily Tom went home.

Slowly he walked away.
Adverbs of Place
Adverbs of Place tell us where something happens.
44
Examples are: upstairs, here, there, nearby, everywhere, in, out etc.

She looked for him everywhere.

Please come in.

They bought a house nearby.

He lives here.

The boss has gone out.

He was seen nowhere.
Certain adverbs of place express both movement and location.
Examples are: ahead, abroad, overseas, uphill, downhill, sideways, indoor, outdoors etc.

My parents live abroad.

They climbed uphill.

She fell backwards.
Position
They are normally placed at the end of a clause.

She took him out.

They all went away.

We went ahead.

The children were playing upstairs.

He jumped out.
They can also come at the beginning of a clause. This is common in literary writing.

On the hilltop an old castle stood majestically.

At around the corner there is a big banyan tree.

Out he jumped.

Upstairs the children were playing.
45
Tenses
The word tense is from the Latin word tempus, which means time. English marks tense in
verbs. The tense of a verb shows the time of an action or event.
English has three tenses: the past, the present and the future.
The present tense refers to the moment of speaking. With most English verbs the present
tense is marked by the suffix s in the third person singular but otherwise has no marking at all.
The past tense refers to a time before the moment of speaking. With most English verbs, the
past tense is marked by the suffix ed, though a number of verbs have an irregular past tense.
The future tense correlates with time later than the time of speaking.
Each of these three main tenses has four forms: the simple, the progressive, the perfect and
the perfect progressive.
Simple Present (Present Simple)
The simple present expresses an action in the present taking place once, never or
several times. It is also used for actions that take place one after another and for actions
that are set by a timetable or schedule. The simple present also expresses facts in the
present.
ForM
Affirmative
Negative
Question
I write.
I do not write.
Do I write?
She writes.
She does not write.
Does she write?
You write.
You do not write.
Do you write?
Uses of the simple present tense
We use the simple present tense to talk about permanent situations, or about things that
happen regularly, repeatedly or all the time.
46

He goes for a walk every morning.

I get up at 6.30.

Ann works for an insurance company.

John writes with his left hand.
timeless truths
We use the simple present tense to express timeless truths.

The earth revolves round the sun.

Heat expands bodies.

Mongooses kill snakes.
series of events
When we talk about completed actions and events that happen as we speak or write, we
usually use the simple present. This happens, for example, in demonstrations and
commentaries.

The two boxers sparred for some time. Suddenly Joe Louis jumps at his opponent and
with a terrific upper cut knocks him out for the full count.
here comes etc.
Note the structure here comes and there goes

There goes the dinner bell.

Here comes the villain of the piece.
Pronoun subjects come directly after here and there.

Here she comes.

There it goes.
talking about the future
The simple present is used to refer to future events which are time tabled.
47

Her train leaves at 3 o' clock.

The next flight is at 5 o' clock tomorrow morning.

The match begins at 9 am.

I start my new job tomorrow.
The simple present is often used instead of will in subordinate clauses that refer to the
future.

I will phone you when I get home.
2. The present progressive tense
Affirmative
Negative
Question
I am writing.
I am not writing.
Am I writing?
She is writing.
She is not writing.
Is she writing?
You are writing.
You are not writing.
Are you writing?
formal correspondence
Some fixed phrases that are used in letter-writing can be expressed either in the simple present
(more formal) or in the present progressive (less formal).

We look forward to hearing from you. (less formal: We are looking forward to
hearing from you.)

I enclose my cheque for $100. (less formal: I am enclosing )
Uses of the present progressive tense
to denote time around now
We use the present progressive to talk about temporary actions and situations that are going
on around now.

It is raining.
48

I am writing letters.

She is having a bath at the moment.

Hurry up! We are all waiting for you.

What are you doing? I am doing my homework.

The kettle is boiling.
The present progressive suggests that the action began before the moment of speaking; it is
going on at the moment of speaking and will probably go on after the moment of speaking.
developing and changing situations
The present progressive can be used to talk about developing and changing situations.

The universe is expanding.

It is getting darker.

The climate is getting warmer.

You are getting younger every day.
talking about the future
We often use the present progressive to talk about the future.

She is leaving for Mumbai on Monday.

What are you doing tomorrow evening?

Janet is coming soon.
physical feelings
Verbs that refer to physical feelings (e.g. hurt, ache, feel) can often be used in simple or
progressive tenses without much difference of meaning.

My tooth aches. OR My tooth is aching.

How do you feel? OR How are you feeling?
verbs not used in progressive forms
There are some verbs which are never or hardly ever used in progressive forms.
49
Examples are: believe, love, doubt, hate, suppose, prefer, imagine, realise, understand, know,
want, remember, wish, like, need etc.

I like his attitude. (NOT I am liking )

I rang her up because I needed to talk. (NOT because I was needing to talk.)

I have only known her for two days. (NOT I have only been knowing her )
Some other verbs are not used in progressive forms when they have certain meanings.
Examples are: feel (= have an opinion), see (= understand), think (= have an opinion), look (=
seem)

I am seeing the doctor at eight oclock.

I see (= understand) what you mean. (NOT I am seeing what )

I am feeling fine. OR I fell fine.

I feel (= have an opinion) we shouldnt do it. (NOT I am feeling we shouldnt do it.)

I think (= have an opinion) she is right. (NOT I am thinking )
3.The present perfect tense
Affirmative
Negative
Question
I have written
I have not written.
Have I written?
She has written.
She has not written.
Has she written?
You have written. You have not written.
Have you written?
Uses of the present perfect tense
past events connected with the present
We can use the present perfect tense to say that a finished action or event is connected with
the present in some way.
50

He has broken his leg. (His leg is broken now.)

Somebody has let the cat in. (The cat is in now.)

Our dog has died. (Our dog is dead.)
recent events
We normally use the present perfect for giving news of recent events.
And here are the main points of the news again. The rupee has fallen against the dollar. The
number of unemployed has reached ten million. There has been a plane crash
Note that after using the present perfect to announce a piece of news, we usually change to
simple or progressive tenses to give the details.
The present perfect is not used to talk about a finished event, if we say when it happened.
Compare:

There has been a plane crash near Tokyo.

There was a plane crash near Tokyo last night.

I have had a word with the boss.

I had a word with the boss today.
with indefinite time adverbs
We often use the present perfect tense for past events when we are thinking of a period of
time continuing up to the present, for example when we use indefinite time adverbs like ever,
before, never, yet and already.
 I am sure we have met before.
 Have you ever seen a ghost?
 Has he come yet?
With more definite expressions of time up to now (e.g. today, this week) we usually prefer a
simple past tense in affirmative clauses. In questions and negatives, we use the present
perfect.
51

I have spoken to him about my holiday.

I spoke to him today about my holiday. (more natural than I have spoken to him today
...)

Have you seen Alice this week?

I havent seen Alice this week.

I saw Alice this week. (more natural than I have seen Alice this week)
past events that cannot be attributed to a definite time
The present perfect is used to talk about past events that cannot be attributed to a definite
time.

I have visited Africa and Latin America.

He has done a lot for me.

I have never known him to be angry.

I have been to Europe twice.
continuation up to now
We often use the present perfect to talk about how long present situations have lasted.

We have known each other for ten years.

We have lived in this city since 1995.

I have studied hard for years.
present perfect and simple past: differences
We do not use the present perfect with expressions that refer to a completely finished period
of time, like yesterday, last week, when, then, five years ago, in 1995. The simple past is
used with this meaning.

I saw Alice yesterday. (NOT I have seen Alice yesterday.)

I was born in 1979.

She died three years ago.

John left ten minutes ago.
American English
52
In American English, the simple past is often used to give news.

Did you hear? France declared/has declared war on Britain.

(GB Have you heard? France has declared war on Britain.)

Lucy just called. (GB Lucy has just called.)

Honey, I lost/ have lost the keys. (GB Honey, I have lost the keys.)
this is the first time etc.
We use a present perfect tense in sentences constructed with this/it/that is the
first/second/third/only/best/worst/etc.

This is the fifth time you have asked me the same question.

It is one of the most interesting books I have ever read.

This is the first time I have heard her sing.
4.The present perfect progressive tense
Affirmative
I have been writing
She has been
writing.
You have been
writing.
Negative
Question
I have not been
Have I been
writing.
writing?
She has not been
Has she been
writing.
writing?
You have not been
Have you been
writing.
writing?
Uses of the present perfect progressive tense
We use the present perfect progressive to talk about situations which started in the past and
are still going on, or which have just stopped and have present results.

I have seen reading since morning.
53

We have been waiting for ages.

You look exhausted. Yes, I have been running.
We cannot use the present perfect progressive with expressions that refer to a finished
period of time.
present progressive and present perfect progressive: differences
Both the present perfect progressive and present progressive can be used to talk about
situations which started in the past and are still going on. The difference is that the present
perfect progressive has an up to now focus. It is common when we are talking about how
long a situation has lasted.

It is raining again.

It has been raining since Christmas. (NOT It is raining since Christmas.)

I am learning English.

I have been learning English for two years. (NOT I am learning English for two
years.)
present perfect and present perfect progressive: differences
Both the present perfect and present perfect progressive can be used to talk about recent
actions and situations that have present results. There is an important difference. The present
perfect progressive focuses on the idea of continuity. The present perfect, on the other
hand, looks more at the ideas of completion.

I have been painting the house. (focus on continuous activity)

I have painted two rooms since lunchtime.

I have been reading your book. (focus on continuous activity)

I have read your book. (focus on completion)
temporary and permanent
We prefer the present perfect progressive to talk about more temporary actions and
situations; when we talk about longer-lasting or permanent situations we often use the
present perfect.
54

He has been standing at the gate all day.

For 1000 years the castle has stood on the hill above the village.

I have been living in Mumbai for the last month.
5. The simple past tense
Affirmative
Negative
Question
I wrote.
I did not write.
Did I write?
She wrote.
She did not write.
Did she write?
You wrote.
You did not write.
Did you write?
Uses of the simple past tense
We use the simple past tense to talk about many kinds of past events: short, quickly finished
actions, longer situations, and repeated events.

I spent all my childhood in Canada.

I visited my grandfather yesterday.

John left 10 minutes ago.
The simple past is common in story-telling.

Once upon a time there lived a rich man. One day, he met a beautiful princess.
The simple past is often used with references to finished periods and time expressions.

He died last year.

I met her yesterday morning.
6. The past progressive tense
Affirmative
Negative
Question
I was writing.
I was not writing.
Was I writing?
She was writing.
She was not writing.
Was she writing?
You were writing. You were not writing. Were you writing?
55
to talk about past events in progress
The past progressive is used to talk about events that were in progress around a particular
past time.

What were you doing yesterday evening?

I was watching TV.

At 7 am this morning, I was doing my homework.
The past progressive is also used to stress that an activity was in progress at every moment
during a period of time.

I was resting all day yesterday.
past progressive and simple past
We often use the past progressive together with a simple past tense. The past progressive
refers to a longer background action or situation; the simple past refers to a shorter action or
event that happened in the middle of the longer action.

I was having a bath when the telephone rang.

As I was driving down the street, I saw Peter.

They were sleeping when the thieves broke in.
past progressive and simple past: differences
Duration
The past progressive is used to talk about temporary actions or situations. For longer, more
permanent situations we use the simple past.

It happened while I was living in Mumbai last year.

I lived in Chennai for ten years while I was a child.
repeated actions
56
We do not normally use the past progressive to talk about repeated or habitual past actions.
The simple past is used with this meaning.

I phoned him four times. (NOT I was phoning four times.)

I rang the bell seven times. (NOT I was ringing the bell seven times.)
However, the past progressive can be used with always, continually and similar words to talk
about things that happened repeatedly and unexpectedly.

He was always bringing us nice gifts.

I didnt like him - he was continually making troubles.
7. The past perfect tense
Affirmative
Negative
Question
I had written.
I had not written.
Had I written?
She had written.
She had not written.
Had she written?
You had written.
You had not written.
Had you written?
Uses of the past perfect tense
to refer to the earlier past
The past perfect tense denotes an action completed at some point in the past before some
other past action commenced. When two actions in the past have to be referred to, the past
perfect is used for the earlier action and the simple past for the later one.

I had seen him twice before he left for New York.

The train had left before I reached the station.

The patient had died before the doctor came.

She had left before I reached home.
57
Note that we can use time conjunctions (e.g. after, before, as soon as) to talk about two
actions or events that happen one after the other. Usually the past perfect is not necessary in
these cases, though it can be used.

After he (had) finished his exam, he went to London.

As soon as I (had) put the phone down, it rang again.
to talk about unrealized hopes and wishes
The past perfect can be used to talk about an unrealized hope, wish etc.

I had hoped that Ann would be a doctor, but she wasn't good at science.
to talk about past events that did not happen
After if, wish and would rather, the past perfect can be used to talk about past events that did
not happen.

If I had gone to university, I would have studied science.

I wish you had told me the truth.
8. The past perfect progressive tense
Affirmative
Negative
Question
I had been writing. I had not been writing. Had I been writing?
She had been
She had not been
Had she been
writing.
writing.
writing?
You had been
You had not been
Had you been
writing.
writing.
writing?
use
We use the past perfect progressive to talk about longer actions or situations which had
continued up to the past moment that we are thinking about, or shortly before it.

The President had been speaking for about half an hour when trouble started.
58

When I found Ann, I could see that she had been crying.

I had been reading the novel for hours when the lights suddenly went out.
past perfect and past perfect progressive: differences
The perfect progressive tenses are often used to talk about more temporary actions and
situations; when we talk about longer-standing or permanent situations we prefer perfect
tenses.

My legs were stiff because I had been standing still for a long time.

They lived in a castle which had stood on a hill above the village for 1000 years.
9. The simple future tense
Affirmative
Negative
Question
I shall/will write.
I shall/will not write.
Shall/will I write?
She will write.
She will not write.
Will she write?
You will write.
You will not write.
Will you write?
British people use I shall/I will and we shall/ we will with no difference of meaning in most
situations. However, shall is becoming much less common than will. Shall is not normally
used in American English.
use
to give information about the future
We use the simple future tense to give or ask for information about the future.

I will phone you tonight.

She will be here in a couple of minutes.

I will go to London tomorrow.
59
We often use the simple future tense in predictions of future events - to say what we think,
guess or calculate will happen.

I shall be rich and famous one day.

It will rain tonight.

You will never get a job.
conditional use
The simple future tense is often used to express conditional ideas, when we say what will
happen if something else happens.

If it rains the match will be cancelled.

Dont leave me. I will cry.
10. The future progressive tense
Affirmative
Negative
Question
I shall/will not be
I shall/will be
writing.
writing.
She will not be
She will be writing. writing.
You will be writing. You will not be
writing.
Shall/will I be
writing?
Will she be writing?
Will you be
writing?
use
We use the future progressive to say that an activity will be in progress at a particular moment
in the future.

This time tomorrow I will be lying on the beach.
The future progressive is also used to talk about future events which are fixed or arranged. It
does not suggest the idea of personal intention.

We shall be visiting Darjeeling in the summer.
60

I will be seeing you one of these days, I think.

He will be having a nap in the afternoon.
predicting the present
The future progressive can also be used to say what we think or guess is probably happening
now.

Dont phone now they will be having lunch.
polite enquiries
The future progressive can be used to make polite enquiries about people's plans.
Compare:

Will you be coming with me? (a polite enquiry about what has been arranged)

Are you coming with me? (pressing for a decision)

Will you come with me? (an instruction or order.)
11. The future perfect tense
Affirmative
Negative
Question
I shall/will have
I shall/will not have
Shall/will I have
written.
written.
written?
She will have
She will not have
Will she have
written.
written.
written?
You will have
You will not not have Will you have
written.
written.
written?
We use the future perfect tense to say that something will have been done, completed or
achieved by a certain time in the future.

We will have completed half the course by Christmas.

The builders say they will have finished the roof by Monday.
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Modals
All the auxiliary verbs modals only exist in their helping form; they cannot act alone as the
main verb in a sentence.
Be, do, and have also differ from the other auxiliaries in that they can also serve as ordinary
verbs in a given sentence.
The modal verbs are:CAN / COULD / MAY / MIGHT / MUST / SHALL / SHOULD / OUGHT TO / WILL /
WOULD
Modal
Example
Uses
Can
They can control their own budgets.
Ability / Possibility
We can’t fix it.
Inability / Impossibility
Can I smoke here?
Asking for permission
Can you help me?
Request
Could I borrow your dictionary?
Asking for permission.
Could you say it again more slowly?
Request
We could try to fix it ourselves.
Suggestion
I think we could have another Gulf War.
Future possibility
He gave up his old job so he could work for us.
Ability in the past
May I have another cup of coffee?
Asking for permission
China may become a major economic power.
Future possibility
Could
May
62
Might
We'd better phone tomorrow, they might be eating
Present possibility
their dinner now.
Future possibility
They might give us a 10% discount.
Must
We must say good-bye now.
Necessity / Obligation
They mustn’t disrupt the work more than necessary. Prohibition
Ought to
We ought to employ a professional writer.
Saying what’s right or
correct
Shall
Shall I help you with your luggage?
Offer
Shall we say 2.30 then?
Suggestion
Shall I do that or will you?
Asking what to do
We should sort out this problem at once.
Saying what’s right or
(More
common in
the UK
than the
US)
Should
correct
I think we should check everything again.
Recommending action
Profits should increase next year.
Uncertain prediction
Will
Would
I can’t see any taxis so I’ll walk.
Instant decisions
I'll do that for you if you like.
Offer
I’ll get back to you first thing on Monday.
Promise
Profits will increase next year.
Certain prediction
Would you mind if I brought a colleague with me?
Asking for permission
Would you pass the salt please?
Request
Would you mind waiting a moment?
Request
"Would three o`clock suit you?" - "That’d be fine." Making arrangements
63
Would you like to play golf this Friday?
Invitation
"Would you prefer tea or coffee?" - "I’d like tea
Preferences
please."
!Note The modal auxiliary verbs are always followed by the base form.
The verb used to, which is explained here, can also be used like a modal verb.
_Can : ( something is possible or allowed ): We can see the lake from our bedroom window.
_Be able to (somebody is able to do something, but can is more usual)
We are able to see the lake from our bedroom window.
_Could : (sometimes could is the past of can. We use could especially with:
-see -hear -smell -taste -feel -remember -understand
As soon as I walked into the room, I could smell gas.
( we also use could to say that somebody had the general ability or permission to do sth.
My grandmother could speak five languages.
( we also use could (not can) to say that something is possible now in the future. The
meaning is similar to might or say.
The story could be true, but I don’t think it is. ( not can be true )
( we also use could to talk possible actions now or in the future especially to make
suggestions)
♦What shall we do this evening?
We could go to the cinema.
Note : Can is also possible in these sentences (‘we can go to the cinema.’ etc)With could, the
suggestion
is less sure.
( we also use could (not can) for actions which are not realistic.)
♦Maybe I could stay with Julia when I go to Paris. ( possible, but less sure.)
Note that we say Do you think you could ….?
(not can)
♦Do you think you could lend me some money until next week?,
64
_Must : (you believe something is certain.)
♦You’ve been traveling all day. You must be tired.
_May & Might : We use may & might to say something is a possibility.
♦ It may be true.
Or It might be true. (= perhaps it is true.)
( we use may and might to talk about possible actions or happening in the future.
♦Take an umbrealla with you. It might rain later.(=perhaps it will rain)
( we use only might (not may) when the situation is not real)
♦If I were in Tom’s position, I might look for another job.
Note : (might as well)
♦We might as well do something: We should do it because there is no better alternative.
There is no reason not to do it. May as well is also possible.
_Have To : You can’t turn right here. You have to turn left.(obliged to do that)
In the usage of must you give your opinion but in have to someone is obliged to do that
the
-
speaker is not giving his/her opinion.
♦I haven’t spoken to Sue for ages. I must phone her. (=I say this is necessary)
♦Jane has to travel a lot for her work.
But must is often used in written rules and instructions:
♦Applications for the job must be received by 18 May.
_Need : You needn’t hurry. Or
You don’t need to hurry.
(Didn’t need to( do) and needn’t have done
♦I didn’t need to get up early, so I didn’t.(it wasn’t necessary for me to and I knew this at
the time)
♦I needn’t have got up early. I could have stayed in bed longer.(I did it but now I know it
was not necessary.
_Should : _ It is a good thing to do or the right thing to do.( to give advice or to give an opinion)
♦You look tired. You should go to bed.
Note : Should is not as strong as must or have to
♦ You should apologize. ( = it would be a good thing to do)
65
_ We also use should to say that we except something to happen.
♦ She’s been studying hard for the exam, so she should pass. (= I expect her to pass.)
_ You can use should after a number of verbs, especially
Demand
insist
propose
recommend
suggest
♦ They insisted that we should have dinner with them.
_ You can use should after a number of adjectives, especially:
Strange
odd
funny
typical
natural
interesting
surprised
surprising
♦It’s strange that he should be late. He’s usually on time.
_Had Better: _It is advisable to do it. If I don’t do it, there will be a problem or a danger.
♦We’d better stop for petrol soon. The tank is almost empty.
Negative => I’d better not …
NOTE = Had better is similar to SHOULD but not exactly the same. We use had better only for a
specific situation (not for things in general). You can use should in all types of situations to give
an opinion or give advice.
♦It’s late. You’d better go.\ you should go.( a specific situations )
You are always at home. You should go out more often. (in general – not ‘had better go’)
_Would : It would be nice to buy a new car, but we can’t afford it.
Adjectives

An adjective is a word like clever, beautiful, green, hungry, brave, which is used
when we describe people, things, events etc. Adjectives are used in connection with
nouns and pronouns

He wore a red shirt.

We need some square tables.

Each hand has five fingers.

You are naughty.

She is a beautiful girl.

He is an honest boy.
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
This is a wooden chair.

She wore a gold necklace.

It was an earthen pot.

Sugar is sweet.
Position of adjectives
Most adjectives can go in two main positions in a sentence:
a) before a noun (attributive position)

Our new principal is an old lady.

He is a clever boy.
b) after be, seem, look and other copular verbs (predicative position)

I am glad to meet you.

You don't look happy to see me.

The milk turned sour.

She felt bad.
Adjectives - Attributive position
Attributive adjectives go before the nouns they qualify.

She is a beautiful (adjective) girl (noun).

They have a big (adjective) house (noun) in the city.

This is a vexed (adjective) problem (noun).

She married a rich (adjective) man (noun).
Attributive adjectives after nouns
1. Attributive adjectives can be put after nouns. This happens in certain fixed phrases.
Examples are: Attorney General, court martial, poet laureate, time immemorial, heir
apparent etc.
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2. Certain adjectives ending in '-ible' and '-able' are also put after the nouns they qualify.

We tried all means (noun) possible (adjective). (= We tried all means that were
possible)

Book all the tickets available. (=Book all the tickets that are available)
3. Adjectives are always placed after words like something, everything, anything, nothing,
somebody, everybody, somewhere etc.

Let us go somewhere quiet.

I heard something interesting today.

Nothing logical ever happens there.
Adjectives used only in attributive position
Some adjectives are used only in attributive position.
Common examples are: elder, eldest, live, little, mere, sheer etc.

My elder sister is a doctor.

Can you eat a live fish?

They have a nice little house in the city.

It was sheer madness.

She is a mere child.
After a verb, other words must be used.

She is older than me. (NOT elder than me.)

The fish is still alive. (NOT is still live.)

Their house is small. (NOT is little)

The baby fell asleep. (NOT fell sleeping.)

Adjectives - Predicative position
Adjectives can be placed after be (is, am, are, was, were) and other copular verbs like look,
seem, appear, feel etc. In this case, the adjective describes the subject of the sentence.
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
She is beautiful.

Our house is small.

This car is new, isn't it?

She looked tired.

I felt sorry for her.

The fish tasted awful.

I was surprised to hear the news.

She seemed upset.
Adjectives used only in predicative position
1. Some adjectives beginning with the letter 'a-' are used mainly in predicative position.
Examples are: afraid, afloat, alight, alike, alive, alone, asleep, awake etc.
Before nouns we use other words.

The baby fell asleep.

The deer saw a sleeping tiger. (NOT saw an asleep tiger.)

He is afraid.

He is a frightened man. (NOT...an afraid man.)
2. The adjectives ill and well are most common in predicative position.
Before a noun, we use other words.

She is ill.

He is an unhealthy child. (NOT an ill child.)

Who looks after the sick people? (NOT ill people.)

She speaks English well.

I can speak good English. (NOT well English.)
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Adjectives: order before nouns
When several adjectives come before a noun, they usually have to be put in a particular order.
The rules for adjective order are very complicated, and different grammars disagree about the
details. Here are some of the most important rules:
Colour, origin, material and purpose
Adjectives (or modifying nouns) of colour, origin, material and purpose usually go in that
order.
Red Italian leather riding boots
A Venetian glass flower vase
Other adjectives
Other adjectives usually go before words of colour, origin, material and purpose. It is
impossible to give exact rules, but adjectives of size, length and height often come first.
A tall, ancient oak-tree (NOT An ancient, tall oak-tree)
A fat old lady
A small black leather bag
A round glass table
Judgments and attitudes
Adjectives which express judgments or attitudes usually come before all others. Examples are
lovely, definite, pure, absolute, extreme, perfect, wonderful, silly.
A lovely, long, cool drink
Numbers
Numbers usually go before adjectives.
Six large eggs
The second big shock
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Commas
Before nouns, we generally use commas between adjectives. This is common in longer
sequences.
An expensive, ill-planned, wasteful Project
Commas can be dropped before short common adjectives.
Kinds of Adjectives
Adjectives are words that describe things.

We need round tables.

Tokyo is a big city.
Adjectives can answer the question "What kind?" (round tables; big city), How much?(some
rice, little effort) Which one? (red shirt, second wife), and How many? (two boys, ten
books).
Kinds of adjectives
Possessive Adjectives
A possessive adjective modifies a noun by telling whom it belongs to. It answers the question
"Whose?"
Examples are: his, her, its, my, our, their, and your.

You can share my rice.

Have you seen their house?

This is his room.

They are our friends.
Demonstrative Adjectives
The demonstrative adjectives that, these, this, those, and what answer the question
"Which?"
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
I'm going to open that present.

Whose is this bag?

These mangoes are very sweet.
A demonstrative adjective may look like a demonstrative pronoun, but it is used differently in
the sentence: it is an adjective, used to modify a noun or pronoun.
Interrogative Adjectives
The interrogative adjectives are used with nouns to ask questions. Examples are what,
which and whose.

What movie do you want to see?

Which leaves turn color first?

Whose son is he?
An interrogative adjective may look like an interrogative pronoun, but it is used differently in
the sentence: it is an adjective, used to modify a noun or pronoun.
Indefinite Adjectives
An indefinite adjective gives indefinite, or general, information. Often, it answers the
question "How much?" Some common indefinite adjectives are all, any, each, every, few,
many, and some.

Many children like dinosaurs.

Did you want some bananas?

Is there any water in the bottle?
An indefinite adjective may look like an indefinite pronoun, but it is used differently in the
sentence: it is an adjective, used to modify a noun or pronoun.
Adjectives with and
When two or more adjectives come together, we sometimes put and before the last one and
sometimes not. The rules are as follows.
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After a verb
When adjectives come in predicative position (after be, seem and similar verbs), we usually
put and before the last one.
He was tall, dark and handsome.
She was like a winter�s day: short, dark and dirty.
In a very literary style, and is sometimes left out.
Before a noun
In attributive position (before a noun), and is less common.
A tall, dark, handsome cowboy
Note that and has to be used when two or more adjectives refer to different parts of
something.
A yellow and black sports car
A concrete and glass factory.
Relative Clauses
We use relative clauses to give additional information about something without
starting another sentence. By combining sentences with a relative clause, your text
becomes more fluent and you can avoid repeating certain words.
How to Form Relative Clauses
Imagine, a girl is talking to Tom. You want to know who she is and ask a friend whether he
knows her. You could say:
A girl is talking to Tom. Do you know the girl?
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That sounds rather complicated, doesn't it? It would be easier with a relative clause: you put
both pieces of information into one sentence. Start with the most important thing – you want
to know who the girl is.
Do you know the girl …
As your friend cannot know which girl you are talking about, you need to put in the additional
information – the girl is talking to Tom. Use „the girl“ only in the first part of the sentence, in
the second part replace it with the relative pronoun (for people, use the relative pronoun
„who“). So the final sentence is:
Do you know the girl who is talking to Tom?
Relative Pronouns
relative
pronoun
Who
which
use
example
subject or object pronoun for people
Do you see the cat which is lying
things
on the roof?
He couldn’t read which surprised
referring to a whole sentence
whose
Possession for people animals and things
me.
object pronoun for people, especially in nondefining relative clauses (in defining relative
clauses we colloquially prefer who)
subject or object pronoun for people, animals
That
lives next door.
subject or object pronoun for animals and
which
whom
I told you about the woman who
and things in defining relative clauses (who
or which are also possible)
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Do you know the boy whose
mother is a nurse?
I was invited by the professor
whom I met at the conference.
I don’t like the table that stands in
the kitchen.
Subject Pronoun or Object Pronoun?
Subject and object pronouns cannot be distinguished by their forms - who, which, that are
used for subject and object pronouns. You can, however, distinguish them as follows:
If the relative pronoun is followed by a verb, the relative pronoun is a subject pronoun.
Subject pronouns must always be used.
the apple which is lying on the table
If the relative pronoun is not followed by a verb (but by a noun or pronoun), the relative
pronoun is an object pronoun. Object pronouns can be dropped in defining relative clauses,
which are then called Contact Clauses.
the apple (which) George lay on the table
Relative Adverbs
A relative adverb can be used instead of a relative pronoun plus preposition. This often makes
the sentence easier to understand.
This is the shop in which I bought my bike.
→ This is the shop where I bought my bike.
relative
adverb
meaning
Use
example
when
in/on which refers to a time expression
the day when we met him
where
in/at which
refers to a place
the place where we met him
why
for which
refers to a reason
the reason why we met him
Defining Relative Clauses
Defining relative clauses (also called identifying relative clauses or restrictive relative
clauses) give detailed information defining a general term or expression. Defining relative
clauses are not put in commas.
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Imagine, Tom is in a room with five girls. One girl is talking to Tom and you ask somebody
whether he knows this girl. Here the relative clause defines which of the five girls you mean.
Do you know the girl who is talking to Tom?
Defining relative clauses are often used in definitions.
A seaman is someone who works on a ship.
Object pronouns in defining relative clauses can be dropped. (Sentences with a relative clause
without the relative pronoun are called Contact Clauses.)
The boy (who/whom) we met yesterday is very nice.
Non-Defining Relative Clauses
Non-defining relative clauses (also called non-identifying relative clauses or non-restrictive
relative clauses) give additional information on something, but do not define it. Non-defining
relative clauses are put in commas.
Imagine, Tom is in a room with only one girl. The two are talking to each other and you ask
somebody whether he knows this girl. Here the relative clause is non-defining because in this
situation it is obvious which girl you mean.
Do you know the girl, who is talking to Tom?
Note: In non-defining relative clauses, who/which may not be replaced with that.
Object pronouns in non-defining relative clauses must be used.
Jim, who/whom we met yesterday, is very nice.
How to Shorten Relative Clauses?
Relative clauses with who, which, that as subject pronoun can be replaced with a participle.
This makes the sentence shorter and easier to understand.
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I told you about the woman who lives next door. – I told you about the woman living next
door.
Do you see the cat which is lying on the roof? – Do you see the cat lying on the roof?
Gerunds and Infinitives
Gerunds and infinitives are forms of verbs that act like nouns. They can follow adjectives
and other verbs. Gerunds can also follow prepositions.
A gerund (often known as an -ing word) is a noun formed from a verb by adding -ing. See
also Nouns/Gerund. Not all words formed with -ing are gerunds.
An infinitive is to + the verb.
When a verb follows a verb it either takes the gerund or infinitive form.
Some verbs can take either the gerund or the infinitive with no loss of meaning.
For example:

With the verb start - "It started to rain." or "It started raining." Both sentences have
the same meaning.
Sometimes the use of the gerund or infinitive changes the meaning of the sentence.
For example:

With the verb remember - "I remembered to do my homework". or "I remembered
doing my homework."
In the first sentence (I remembered to do my homework), the person speaking remembered
they had some homework first and then carried out the action and did it. In the second
sentence (I remembered doing my homework.), the person speaking carried out the action
(their homework) first and then remembered doing it.
77
Other verbs only take one or the other, unfortunately there is no rule as to which form the verb
takes. The same is true when the verb follows an adjective.
Verbs that are normally followed by the gerund form:acknowledge | admit | adore | anticipate | appreciate | avoid | celebrate | confess | contemplate
delay | deny | describe | detest | discuss | dislike | dread | endure | enjoy
fancy | finish | imagine | involve | keep | justify | mention | mind | miss | omit | postpone |
practise
quit | recall | recommend | regret | report | resent | resume | risk | suggest | tolerate | understand
For example:

I adore reading your books.

They anticipated winning the election.

I detest going to discos.

We postponed making any decision in the meeting.

I quit smoking.

Do you recall seeing someone like that?
verbs which are normally followed by the infinitive form:afford | agree | appear | arrange | ask | attempt | care | choose | claim | come | consent
dare | decide | demand | deserve | determine | elect | endeavour | expect | fail | get | guarentee
hate | help | hesitate | hope | hurry | incline | intend | learn | long | manage | mean | need
offer | plan | prepare | pretend | promise | refuse | resolve | say | seem | tend | threaten | want |
wish
For example:

I can't afford to go to the pub.

He agreed to practise more.

You should learn to express yourself.

They managed to fix the problem.
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Verbs - Gerund or Infinitive
Verbs which can be followed by the gerund or infinitive form:Some verbs can be followed by the gerund or infintive
With no change in meaning
begin | continue | hate | like | love | neglect | prefer | start | try
For example:
He began to learn English when he was eight.

He began learning English when he was eight.

I hate to leave.

I hate leaving.
!Note - We often use the gerund when we speak about things in general, and the infinitive for
particular situations.
With a change in meaning
forget | remember | stop
For example:
I forgot to feed the cat. (The cat is hungry - he has not been fed)

I forgot feeding the cat. (The cat is ok - I fed him and then forgot about it)
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SECTION 2
1. CONTEXT
-
Time ( Tenses, adverbial clauses of time)
-
Place ( Adverbial clause of place, inverted structure)
-
Participants ( Pronouns, passive)
-
Intention ( Modals, adverbial clauses of purpose, condition)
-
VERB SEMANTICS
1. State verbs
2. Activity verbs
3. Achievement verbs
4. Accomplishment verbs
**V.I.P.( Very Important Point): Both state and activity verbs have no end point. While
state verbs have past, activity verbs do not have any end point.
**V.I.P: Both accomplishment and achievement verbs have end point. However; while
accomplishment verbs are intentional, achievement verbs are not intentional.
2. LINGUISTICS
A) Semantics (Anlam Bilim)
B) Syntax (Söz Dizimi)
C) Lexicon (Sözlük Bilimi)
D) Phonology ( Ses Bilim)
E) Morphology ( Biçim Bilim)
Sample words related to semantics
80

To die ( solmak) → Achievement verb
-
The flowers are dying.√
-
The flowers died. √
-
The flowers will die tomorrow. (There is no agent/intention.) X
-
The flowers have been dying. (There is not any motion. Thus it is not used in
progressive tenses.) X
-
The flowers had died by the time I came home. √
-
The flowers will have died by the time I come back next week. √
ASSIGNMENT 1
●Ten example verbs
- dance
- lie
- swim
- injure
- jog
- drink
- listen
- sleep
- enjoy
- sing
ASSIGNMENT 2
♦ To Dance
-
Past Tense
Ex: I danced with my partner at the party.
-
Past Continuous Tense
Ex: I was dancing with my partner at the party.
-
Past Perfect
Ex: I had danced with my partner at tha party.
81
-
Past Perfect Continuous
Ex: I had been dancing with my partner at the party.
-
Present Tense
Ex: I dance with my partner at the party.
-
Present Continuous Tense
Ex: I am dancing with my partner at the party.
-
Present Perfect Tense
Ex: I have danced with my partner at the party.
-
Present Perfect Continuous Tense
Ex: I have been dancing with my partner at the party.
-
Future Tense
Ex: I will dance with my partner at the party.
-
Future Continuous Tense
Ex: I will be dancing with my partner at the party.
-
Future Perfect Tense
Ex: I will have danced with my partner at the party.
-
Future Perfect Tense
Ex: I will have been dancing with my partner at the party.
ASSIGNMENT 3
**Describe ‘tenses’ in English
 We use ‘simple present’ to express events that exist always; they exist now, have
existed in the past and probably will exist in the future.
 We use ‘simple past’ to express an event which began and ended at one particular
time in the past.
 We use ‘simple future’ to express an event that will happen at one particular time in
the future.
 We use ‘present progressive’ for actions in progress at thepresent time.
 We use ‘past progressive’ for actions in progress at a particular time in the past.
 We use ‘future progressive’ for actions that will be in progress at a particular time in
the future.
82
 We use ‘present perfect’ to describe an action that started in the past with an effect in
the present.
 We use ‘past perfect’ to express an action that finished before another time in the
past.
 We use ‘future perfect’ to describe an event that will be completed by a particular
time in the future.
 We use ‘present perfect progressive’ to talk about an action in progress up to the
present.
 We use ‘past perfect progressive’ for events in progress before another event in the
past.
 We use ‘future perfect progressive’ for actions lasting from a point before that time
up to that future time.
REFERENCES
** Yule, G. Oxford Practice Grammar. Oxford University Press.
ASSIGMENT 4
Find two complex sentences and try to explain them without using the structure taking place
in the sentence.
► After graduating from high school, Marisa did not pass the university entry exam.
╚ First, she finished high school but she didn’t pass the university exam.
► Before we arrived at school, my mother had phoned me.
╚ I was about to arrive at school; at that time my mother called me.
ASSIGNMENT 5
Find some sentences and analyze them in terms of their voice.
╚I disagree with you. ► RECIPROCAL
╚I embraced my nephew. ► ACTIVE
╚Two friends embraced. ►LEXICALLY RECIPROCAL
╚The cake slices easily. ►ACTIVE, LEXICALLY PASSIVE
╚Janet broke the cup. ►ACTIVE, LEXICALLY CAUSATIVE
╚ The two friends split up. ► LEXICALLY RECIPROCAL
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╚ Lisa broke the vase. ►LEXICALLY CAUSATIVE
╚ Silk creases if you do not iron it. ► LEXICALLY PASSIVE
╚ Two vans collided with each other. ► SYNTACTICALLY RECIPROCAL
╚ Alice broke my heart. ► LEXICALLY CAUSATIVE
╚ Linda has passed the university exam. ► ACTIVE
╚ I reached at home at 6 o’clock. ► ACTIVE
╚ The two darlings embraced when they was each other after 5 months. ► LEXICALLY
RECIPROCAL
╚ My brother always gets up, washes and shaves. ► LEXICALLY REFLEXIVE
╚ I threw a stone and broke the glass. ► ACTIVE/LEXICALLY CAUSATIVE
╚ He availed himself of the free coffee. ► SYNTAXICALLY REFLEXIVE
Semantic Components
1. Motion
2. Agent/intention
3. Period/time/duration
4. Direction
5. End point
Analysis of some verbs
1) to die ( ölmek) ►
▪ motion (+) ( very low)
▪ agent (-)
▪ period (+)
► ACHIEVEMENT VERB
▪ direction (-)
▪ end point (+)
2) to die ( solmak) ►
▪ motion ( -)
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▪ agent (-)
▪ period (+)
► ACHIEVEMENT VERB
▪ direction (-)
▪ end point (+)
3) to jump ►
▪ motion (+)
▪ agent (+)
▪ period (+)
► ACTIVITY VERB
▪ direction (+)
▪ end point (-)
**V.I.P: Activity verbs become accomplishment verbs when they finish.
Agent
*****
Motion
Direction
End
Period
point
Activity
+
+
+
-
+
Accomplishment
+
+
+
+
+
Achievement
-
+
+
+
+
State
-
-
-
-
-
**V.I.P: Bütün accomplishment fiiller bir noktada activity fiiller olarak görülebilir. Bu da
progressive tense sayesinde olur.
** V.I.P: State verbs do not have time. They have no past, future or no duration.
4) to blow ►
▪ motion (+)
▪ agent (+)
▪ period (+)
► ACTIVITY VERB
▪ direction (+)
▪ end point (+)
85
5) to choose ► ▪ motion (+)
▪ agent (+)
▪ period (+)
► ACCOMPLISHMENT VERB
▪ direction (-)
▪ end point (+)
T
A
M
▼
▼
▼
(Tenses)
(Aspect)
(Modality)
*PAST
*PRESENT
*FUTURE
-Past Progressive
→
Present Progressive
→ Future Progressive
-Past Perfective
→
Present Perfective
→
Future Perfect
-Past Prefect Progressive → Present Perfect Progressive → Future Perfect Progressive
**V.I.P: Tense ile time her zaman örtüşmeyebilir. Uyuşmadığı durumlarda unreality
ortaya çıkar.
Sample sentences
^ I had been living in Adana for twenty years when I decided to move to Mersin.
86
^ I had lived in Adana for twenty years before I decided to move to Mersin.
^ The thieves left through the back door when the owners of the house came in.
Conjunctions: They make complex sentences.
* When, after, before, etc.
Coordinators: They make compound sentences.
* And, but, so, yet, etc.
Thematic Roles
-
Agent
- Goal
-
Causer
- Source
-
Experiencer
- Beneficiary
-
Patient
- Instrument
-
Location
- Theme
**V.I.P: The difference between plants and human beings, animals is that plants are not
agent because they are inanimate. Plants cannot move. They cannot desire to do
something.
♣Agent: There must be movement, free will and animacy in agent.
Sample: I damaged the house.
▼
AGENT
♣Causer: This person must cause to something to happen. It can be animate or
inanimate.
Sample: The storm damaged the house.
▼
CAUSER
87
♣Experiencer: One has to have a heart and mind. If the verb is related to emotional
verbs, feelings namely if there is a psychological situation, we can say that this is experiencer.
It should be animate.
Sample: I hate you.
► EXPERIENCER
I love you.
Sample: I am offended. ► EXPERIENCER
You broke my heart. ► CAUSER
▼
EXPERIENCER
♣Patient: If there is physical change in terms of subject or object, it is patient.
Sample: You broke the glass.
▼
PATIENT
**V.I.P: While experiencer undergoes psychological change, patient undergoes physical
change.
♣ Goal: If there is a direction towards something, it is a goal.
Sample: I left Mersin for İstanbul.
▼
▼
SOURCE GOAL
♣ Source: If there is a source of action, this is source.
Sample: I hate you.
▼
SOURCE
♣ Beneficiary: If there is a person and that person has benefits from the things done, it is
beneficiary.
Sample: I help my mother.
▼
BENEFICIARY
88
She gave me a present.
▼
BENEFICIARY
I made a cake for you.
▼
▼
AGENT
BENEFICIARY
♣ Instrument: It is as a help to do something. We can say the things we use to do
something are instrument.
Sample: I write with a board marker on the board.
▼
▼
INSTRUMENT
LOCATION
♣ Theme: Theme can be either animate or inanimate.
Sample: The wind is blowing.
▼
THEME
I am thinking about Mary.
▼
THEME
**V.I.P: Almost all natural events are themes if they do not have causers.
Some Example Sentences with Thematic Roles
1) The wind blew off the roof of the house.
▼
CAUSER
▼
PATIENT
2) She was walking with a tray full of glasses. She tipped to the flower. She broke
the glasses. = In this sentence, “she” is the “causer”. She caused the glasses
to be broken.
89
3) She was angry and she threw the glass. It broke. = In this sentence, “she” is
the “agent”.
4) I will heat some milk for you.
▼
▼
AGENT
▼
PATIENT BENEFICIARY
5) Boil some water in the sauce pan and use it for making some spaghetti.
▼
▼
PATIENT
▼
LOCATION THEME\PATIENT
6) I fried some potatoes for dinner with some sauce.
▼
▼
AGENT
PATIENT
7) I dried some tomatoes for the winter.
▼
▼
AGENT
PATIENT
8) Let the onions brown after chopping them in some fat.
▼
▼
PATIENT
▼
PATIENT LOCATION
9) (You) Do not hesitate to call me in an emergency.
▼
▼
AGENT/EXPERIENCER
THEME
10) Nice to meet you.
▼
THEME
11) What frightens me is that my daughter rejects all this.
▼
CAUSER
12) I fear the storm.
▼
SOURCE
**V.I.P: “For” is an aim but is not a goal. It is not a place to reach. It is not also a noun
phrase. So as to say that it is a goal, there should be a going towards.
90
VOICE
♣ Active: I open my book. → Active- No active
♣ Passive: The door is opened. → Syntax
♣ Reciprocal: They saw each other. → Syntax
** “each other” is syntactic mechanism for reciprocal.
♣ Reflexive: They saw themselves in the mirror in the funfair. → Syntax
** “self” is a syntactic mechanism for reflexive.
♣ Causative: I made him go. → Syntax
**V.I.P: In causative sentences, an agent becomes “causer”.
 I made him clean the car. → Force
 I had him clean the car. → Less force
**V.I.P: make→ more force is available
have→ less force is available. (You say if you do something for me, I will do for
you, too.)
**V.I.P: As the degree of force lessens, it becomes less “causer”.
♦Syntactic ( Söz dizimi): It is done according to passive rules. It is evident from the structure
that it is passive.
♦Morphological: This is not available in English.
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♦Lexical( Sözlüksel): There is not an evident passive structure; however, it can be seen from
the meaning whether it is passive or not.
Sample Sentences with Voices
1) I broke the glass.( It is important to know whether it is intentionally or not .)
╚ Lexically causative
2) I frightened her.
╚ Lexically causative
3) I sent Tom to the market.
╚ Lexically causative
4) I had my bag stolen. → Low agency
▼
EXPERIENCER
5) I had my teeth pulled. → High agency
**V.I.P: The voice is not only identified with syntax but it is also remarked according to
its meaning.
**V.I.P: Not all verbs have their voice in their syntactic roles.
◊Some lexically reflexive verbs: shave, commit suicide, take a shower, wash, makeup, dress, etc.
Examples with voices and thematic roles
1) The wood cracked due to the direct sunlight.
▼
╚ Lexically passive
PATIENT
▼
CAUSER\SOURCE
2) We purified the water before drinking it.( drink: Accomplishment verb)
▼
↓
▼
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↓
Agent
Theme
Lexically Passive
3) The hole opened due to the flood.
↓
▼
▼
↓
PATIENT
CAUSER/THEME
Causative Inchoative (Active)
4) The hole was opened due to the flood.
▼
↓
PATIENT
↓
▼
CAUSER
Syntactically Passive
5) The curator opened the museum door in the morning.
▼
↓
AGENT
↓
▼
THEME
Lexically Causative
6) The crowd gathered in the garden.
▼
↓
AGENT
↓
Lexically Reciprocal
7) It
turned out that he had been lying.
▼
↓
▼
↓
↓
AGENT
↓
THEME
Lexically Passive
Active
8) We melted the butter and salted it.
▼
↓
AGENT
↓
▼
PATIENT
↓
▼
↓
PATIENT/THEME
9) The snow accumulated on the mountain.
93
↓
Causative Inchoative (Active)
**V.I.P: To decide whether it is lexically passive or not, we use “BY”.
√In the sentence below, ‘the snow was accumulated by…’ is impossible. Thus, it is not
lexically passive. It is not tested with “BY”.
√So as to be able to use ‘by’, it should be animate.
**V.I.P: The difference between causative inchoative and lexically passive is that while
lexically passive is tested with ‘by’, it is not possible for causative inchoative.
**V.I.P.: Causative Inchoative, passive ve active yapının kesiştiği yerdir. Doğa olayları
gibi süreç gerektiren, kendiliğinden olan şeyler için kullanılır.
**V.I.P: There are some tests we use for the voices of the sentences.
∆Lexically passive is tested with “by”.
∆Lexically causative is tested with “cause stg. to do/to be done”.
∆Lexically reciprocal is tested with “making the subject singular”.
∆Lexically reflexive is tested with “you do stg. and you are affected by the action”.
Sample Sentences
√
The child was taken to the hospital.
Syntactically Passive
√ He washed himself.
Syntactically Reflexive
√ A church was adorned with religious paintings.
Syntactically Passive
√ He accustomed himself to live alone.
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Syntactically Reflexive
√ He took the old lady’s arms and guided her across the road.
Active
Active
√ The president affirmed his intention to reduce taxes.
Active
Active( Lexically Causative)
√ Everything I have accomplished seemed to affirm that opinion.
Lexically Passive
√ The church forbids remarriage of divorced persons.
Lexically Causative
√ I marry you.
Lexically Causative
√ The judge divorced us.
Lexically Causative
√ We divorced.
Lexically Reciprocal
√ I got divorced with my husband.
Passive
**V.I.P: ‘Divorce’ kelimesinin anlamında reciprocity olduğu için ‘with’ alır.
√ Alisson stiffened as she heard a noise outside the door.
Passive
√ The snow was accumulated by the children playing snow ball.
= There is no cause and process. Thus, it is Syntactically Passive.
√ I dressed.
Reflexive
√ I cut my finger.
95
Lexically Causative
√ The student was mailed by the professor.
Ergative ( Causative Inchoative)
√ The park closes at six.
Lexically Passive
√ The door suddenly opened and Mary came in.
= (The door was opened by Mary. Thus, it is Lexically Passive)
√ The door opened and a strong wind was felt inside.
= (It happens naturally and thus it is Causative Inchoative.)
*Some samples with thematic roles, voices and verb semantics
√ The soup has thickened. You can turn off the gas.
↓
▼
PATIENT
Active/Causative Inchoative
**to thicken: Achievement verb as there is no agency.
√ He moved his chair and began to whisper to Tom.
**he: Causer
**moved: Lexically Causative
**his chair: Theme
**began: Active
**to Tom: Goal
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√ He burned himself in the fire. That came out due to his carelessness.
▼
↓
CAUSER
↓
↓
▼
▼
↓
LOCATION
Syntactically Reflexive
SOURCE
Lexically Causative
√ Cool down the macaroni before you sauce it.
▼
↓
▼
▼
AGENT ↓ THEME
PATIENT
Active
√ I thawed the meal before slicing
↓
▼
CAUSER↓
↓
▼
▼
↓ THEME
PATIENT
Lexically Causative
it.
Active
√ Chop the parsley before using it in the soup.
↓
Lexically
▼
PATIENT
▼
▼
THEME LOCATION
Causative
√ The car reversed and bumped into the house.
▼
↓
PATIENT Lexically Passive
▼
GOAL
√ His eyes (were) filled with tears.
97
↓
Lexically Passive
√ Metal expands when it is heated at 100°C.
↓
↓
Active
Syntactically Passive
(Causative Inchoative)
√ Heat radiates from the sun.
▼
▼
THEME
SOURCE
√ The sun emits heat.
▼
↓
▼
SOURCE
↓
THEME
Active
√I
▼
developed goose pimples.
↓
PATIENT ↓
▼
THEME
Active
(Causative Inchoative)
√ The stale bread slices easily.
▼
PATIENT
↓
Lexically Passive
98
√I
was baffled at the way he shouted at me.
↓
▼
EXPERIENCER
▼
↓
SOURCE
Syntactically Passive
√ Mr. Brown is dubbed as a bad man.
↓
Syntactically Passive
√ You can thicken the stew with flour.
↓
▼
▼
↓ PATIENT
AGENT
(CAUSER)
√ Whales
▼
INSTRUMENT
Active (Lexically Causative)
become disoriented in the shallow water.
▼
↓
▼
EXPERIENCER
↓
LOCATION
Syntactically Passive
** V.I.P: We do not look for syntactic or lexical in active voice.
**V.I.P: There is a difference between ‘Activity’ and ‘Active’. It is that ‘Activity’ is a
situation type while ‘Active’ is voice.
**V.I.P: In order to say that it is causative, it should response the ‘Causative test’.( cause
something to do/to be done)
**V.I.P: The agent in Reciprocal, Reflexive and Causative voices should be %100.
Samples with Passive
♣ My mother is making a cake.
-
A cake is being made by my mother.
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♣ We will clean the whole house tomorrow.
-
The whole house will be cleaned tomorrow.
♣ We should preserve old customs.
-
Old customs should be preserved.
♣ My mother made me clean the house.
-
I was made to clean the house.
♣ Our teacher wants us to finish the homework.
-
Our teacher wants the homework to be finished.
**V.I.P:
1) Phrases cannot be changed into other structure.
2) State verbs are not passivized.
3) We cannot say that each lexically causative sentence are not turned into passive. However;
if a verb is lexically causative and has a non-real or empty object, we cannot make
passivization.
Ex: The sun dried their clothes.
4) Sıfatlar ve adlaşmış sıfatlar Noun Phrase yani ad öbeği olmazlar.
5) Bir yapının passive yapılabilmesi için gerçek bir nesne( object), gerçek bir transitive ve
gerçek bir Noun Phrase olması gerekir.
6) Lexically causative zaten passive olduğu için bir daha passive yapmaya gerek yoktur.
Some samples about NP
^ They declared him president.
▼
▼
NP not NP
(what/whom?)
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# Noun Phrases can be determiners, articles, countable and uncountable, some, any, a, an,
the etc.
= We cannot say ‘the president’. Thus, it is not a NP.

What did they declare him?

Whom did they declare him?
# ‘President’ is a title, not NP as it is adjective.
MODALITY
Mod: These are the reactions people give as a result of events.
Modal: The speaker is in the centre of the action.

Shall I help you? ► OFFER (There, you will do something but you ask somebody
for permission.)

Shall we go to the cinema? ► SUGGESTION (There, you want the other to join the
action.)
► could: There is a process. ( Zamana yayılma vardır.)→ Yapabiliyordu.
► was able to: That happens spontaneously. (Anlık bir şeydir.) → Yapabildi.
Modal Auxiliary
♠ Auxiliary verbs form negative and question sentences.
Modal Verbs
♠ These verbs seem as if they are real.
Ex: have to → modal verb
dare to → modal verb
need to → modal verb
need → modal auxiliary
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Sample Sentences
1) I daren’t go there.
▼
Modal Auxiliary
2) I don’t dare to go.
Modal Verb
Modal Auxiliaries
Modal Verbs
Modal-like Expressions
can
►
need to
►
to be supposed to do
must
►
dare
►
to be (un)likely to do
need
►
have to
►
manage to do stg
dare
Modal or Tense?
☼ They could have been more careful with their money when they were on holiday.
Modal
☼ I shall be staying in Paris for another two days.
Tense (It shows time in the future)
☼ Will it rain tomorrow, do you think?
Tense
☼ He would get angry if you interfered with his business. (now) (Type 2)
Modal (not future in the past)
☼ You will presumably be wishing to join another team.
Tense
Modality Markers
1. Tenses
2. Modals
3. Modal verbs
4. Modal like expressions such as possible, necessary, etc.
5. Subjunctives and other inverted structures
6. Adverbial Clauses
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SENTENCE STRUCTURE
1. Constituents:
Groups of words that form grammatical units in a sentence, grammatical units (sentence,
clause, phrase, word or morpheme) make up the constituents of a sentence.
To find out the constituent of a sentence, it is possible to do constituency tests:

1. The word string can be replaced by one word.
Mary is sitting in the garden.
Mary is sitting there.

2.A question can be asked:
Where is Mary sitting? She is sitting in the garden.

3. The constituent can be moved around:
In the garden is Mary sitting.

4. The constituent can be the focus element X in a cleft sentence:
It was the garden that Mary was sitting in.
**V.I.P: Phrases are also called the constituents of sentences.
103
1.1. Noun Phrases (NPs)
The most important element of a string of words as in the boy in the garden, in which boy is
the head of the phrase.( Head is the determiner of the phrase name -English is a head initial/
first, Turkish is a head final/ last language) The head of the NP triggers the agreement rules
imposed on the verb.
1. 2. Prepositional Phrases (PPs)
Phrases are inseparable units; any insertion destroys the nature of the string.
In the room/ *the room in
After dinner/ *dinner after
1.3. Verb Phrases (VPs)
This constituent is central in the sentence because it contains the verb (V), the argument
structure of which determines the minimal components of the sentence. Because the verb
determines the obligatory components of the string under control and it is semantically
important as it determines what kind of event is depicted. V is the head of the constituent as in
the example,
☼ The young boy will meet his girlfriend.
1.4. Adjective Phrases (APs)
☼ a rather calm woman.
**V.I.P: An adjective can occur with a degree adverb as a modifier in such a string.
2. Transitivity and Complementation
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Transitivity is the structural limitation the verb undergoes depending on whether it takes
an object or not. If a verb is transitive, it takes an object, if intransitive/ detransitive, it does
not take an object or if ditransitive, it takes two objects. There are some grammatical
categories changing the verb transitivity such as passive constructions, as mechanisms
decreasing transitivity degree as in,
☼☼ Somebody stole my bag
☼☼ My bag was stolen.
√Or causative constructions increasing the transitivity degree as in,
☼☼ A painter painted my house
☼☼ I had a painter paint my house.
In the first example, the number of the participants of the sentence; thus, the objects
and the subjects; in other words, the arguments of the predicate have been increased with the
help of the structural mechanisms. What seems to be strange here is that a painter acts both as
the subject of the verb, paint and the object of the causative verb, had. Such structures are
very common in English under the name of small clauses, the examples of which take place
later. Such examples show that sentences have some other types except simple ones, called
compound, and complex.
Verb complementation, on the other hand, is the process taking its roots in the verb
transitivity depending on the verb meaning. If a verb requires an object as a complement,
which is the obligatory element of a sentence, it is transitive. But if it does not take a
complement, then it is intransitive. Complements are NPs and the other parts of the sentence,
which are optional, are called adjuncts. Adjuncts are the adverbs or adverbials and most of the
grammatical processes in interaction with the verb (except adjectival clauses) are adjuncts.
Ex: I met the teacher who works with your brother the day before. (Complement)
Ex: I met Mary in the street yesterday. (Two adjuncts, one a PP, the other an adverb)
So sentences, which necessarily take complements are simple sentences and they have
one predicate; sentences, which have one predicate with a TAM marker on ( this produces a
105
main clause in this sense) and other clauses as subordinate ones ( occurring as the adverbial
clauses of time, purpose, etc.) come out as the optional elements and they give further support
to the meaning of the sentence as the main meaning transfer takes place in the main clause.
Such clauses make up the adjuncts as they are optional elements and we call these clauses the
complex ones.
3. SENTENCE TYPES
SIMPLE SENTENCES: These sentences have only one verb inflected with a ‘TAM’ (
tense, aspect, modality ) marker. A string of words normally consist of obligatory constituents
and have seven clause types:
1. SVA: Mary is at home.
2. SVC: Mary is beautiful.
3. SVO: I bought a sweater.
4. SVOA: I did the repair work in the living room.
5. SVOC: They chose him the leader.
6. SVOO: They showed the new boy his room.
COMPLEX SENTENCES
► If a verb is transitive, which means it can take a complement, it takes this complement in
the form of a finite sentence as in,
☼☼ Mary said that she would come with us
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► Or a non- finite sentence as a complement as in,
☼☼ I do not understand why she wants to come with us.
Such a sentence completion takes the form of a complex sentence as the dependent clause
(subordinate) becomes a complement for the main clause. Since complements are the
obligatory elements of verbs, we can not make meaningful sentences without these and
naturally a main clause (an independent clause with TAM markers on) and at least one
subordinate clause (a dependent clause, non-finite mostly, embedded in the main clause)
makes up a sentence called the complex sentence. In complex sentences there are at least two
propositions, one of which acts as the independent proposition and the other acts as the
dependent proposition.
3.1. FORMAL MARKERS OF SUBORDINATION
Subordinating conjunctions are the formal devices of subordination particularly for
finite clauses.
a.Single- word subordinatiors:
after, although, as, because, before, for, if, immediately, lest, since, once, etc.
b.Multi- word subordinators:
but that, in that, in order that, in the event that, etc.
c.Correlative subordinators
as....so, so.....that, whether ....or, etc.
d.Other markers of subordination:
1. Wh-elements (interrogative clauses as initial sentences):
► What do you think she will say when you tell her the truth?
107
2. The relative pronoun, that which can replace wh- pronouns in restrictive relative
clauses:
► The boy that stands in the corner is tall.
3. Subject-operator inversion is also a subordination marker in some clauses:
► Were she younger, she would study harder.
3.2. VERB COMPLEMENTATION
♦ Complement
-
Eylemi bir şekilde tamamlayan yapıdır.
-
Eylemin yanına aldığı zorunlu parçadır.
-
Complement replies the questions ‘who’ and ‘what’.
-
If a verb takes complement, it is transitive.
♦ Adjunct
-
These can be omitted from the sentence.
-
Adjunct replies the question ‘why, where, when and how’
-
If a verb takes adjunct, it is transitive.
Noun Clause (Complement)
Adverbial Clauses (Adjunct)
Relative
►
Reported
►
Result
Who
►
Time
That
►
Place
►
Manner
If/Whether
Reason
Purpose
108
Intransitive Verbs
►Tom has come.
Copular Verbs (verbs like appear, feel, be, look, seem, smell, sound, taste, etc.)
►You look tired.
Complementation by adverbials:
► Tom lives in New York.
Noun phrases as prepositional objects
►We agreed on the arrival date.
Complementation by a finite clause, that clause as an object:
►Everybody hopes that it will stop raining.
►They agreed that they would bring up the problem at the next meeting.
►People insist that the party spokesman be nominated for the coming elections.
►I wish that you would come to Istanbul for the seminar.
Complementation by an extraposed subject that clause :( not an object of the
verb, case like empty it)
►It appears that we have come to the wrong wedding.
Wh - clauses as object
►Have you learnt whether she is coming with us?
Non-finite clauses as direct object
►They showed the new mother how to bathe the baby. (wh- infinitive clause)
►I would rather stay at home this evening. (Subjectless infinitive clause)
109
►Tom prefers meeting new people to sticking to his old friends.
(Subjectless –ing participle clause)
►I would like you to remain out of this argument. ( to infinitive clause with subject)
►I hate you telling me lies all the time. ( -ing participle clause with subject)
3.3. Complex Transitive Verb
►In such a verb complementation the two elements following the complex transitive verb
have a subject verb agreement.
♣I consider Tom to be hardworking
♣I consider Tom hardworking
♣People consider that Tom is a hardworking boy
♣Tom is considered to be a hardworking boy.
►In the passive construction the two elements are not a single constituent, because the first
element is separated from the second and becomes the passive subject.
Direct object and object complement
♣In this case the object complement is an adjective phrase or a noun phrase.
♣ The boy left his meal unfinished.
♣In this case the direct object can become the subject of the passive constructions
♣We have remained silent for some time
♣The board has elected you the chairman of this group.
110
Direct object and adjunct
♣The thief pushed the duplicate key into the lock.
♣The lecturer resumed where he had left.
Direct object and to infinitive clause
♣The children regard their parents to be strict.
♣We intend you to stay with us for another fortnight.
Direct object and bare infinitive clause
♣We saw the old man hold two heavy bags and put them into the car.
But in the passive form,
♣The old man was seen to hold two heavy bags and (to) put them into the car.
--Direct object and –ing participle clause
♣Perceptual verbs, Verbs of encounter and two causative verbs (get and have) take
this pattern:
→We heard the train blowing its whistle far from the place we were waiting.
→We must get moving.
--Direct object and –ed participle clause
♣Perceptual verbs, volitional verbs, and the two causative verbs take this pattern:
→ I felt my shoulder touched.
→I want these letters written.
3.4. Ditransitive verbs
♣Ditransitive verbs take two object noun phrases, an indirect object, and a direct
object. These verbs can occur as monotransitive verbs, too.
111
→They gave the children colorful candies.
Object and prepositional object
♣Some ditransitive verbs take the second object in the prepositional form.
→The presents were handed to the children.
Indirect object and -that clause object
→I told Fiona that she was right.
Prepositional object and -that clause object
→Tom suggested to me that we should allocate some more spare time for our studies.
Indirect object and –wh clause
→Could you please tell me where I can go to the park?
Indirect object and –to infinitive clause
→I invited Tom to have dinner with us tonight.
Sample Sentences with Adjuncts
∆I abandoned the car stuck in the mud on a lonely road. ► Reduced Relative Clause
∆Tim quickly gave a kiss to his mother in the kitchen before going to his room.
► Reduced Adverbial Clause of Time
∆Tom probably knew that the solution to the problem would take longer than he had
expected. ► Noun Clause
∆I believe that Tom has compensated for the damage he made to Tom’s car. ► Noun
Clause/Reduced Relative Clause
112
∆Tim explained why the other girls had not come to the meeting spot to his sister.
► Adverbial Clause of Time
∆Mary showed (Ditransitive verb) me the painting that she had made in the art lesson.
► Noun Clause/Relative Clause
∆Which book did Mary say that Tom had recommended?
→Mary said that Tom had recommended that book. ► (Noun Clause)
∆Why did Tom say that the manager had refused to sign the contract?
→Tom said that..........because........ ► (Noun Clause/Adverbial Clause of Reason)
∆I do not know whether to trust Tom or not. ► (Reduced Noun Clause)
(I should trust Tom or not)
∆I asked Tom if he would come with me.
∆I asked Tom to come with me. ► Small Clause
∆The reason why there are so many unemployed people around is that they are
unqualified workers. ►Relative Clause/Noun Clause
∆I consider Tim’s explanation unsatisfactory. ► (Small Clause)
∆There arose a horrible noise. ► (Simple Sentence)
∆Under the table is a good place to hide. ► Reduced Relative Clause
Where you can hide
∆Tom arranged for Tim to come to the meeting. ► Small Clause
∆I heard Mary calling for help. ► Small Clause
∆We must have the workers work harder. ► Small Clause
∆Tina was made to leave the building. ► Small Clause
113
∆I had my bag stolen. ► Small Clause
∆Students (who are) almost out of control are the least thing a teacher wants. ►Reduced
Relative Clause
∆Pets at home with babies are what we should abstain from. ► Relative Clause/Noun
Clause
**V.I.P: There are some structures which are small clause:
♦ have sb. do/ have stg. done
♦ get sb. to do sth.
♦ make sb. do stg.
♦ ask sb. to do sth.
♦ see sb. do/doing stg.
Examples about Verb Complementation
♦ I abandoned the car stuck in the mud on a lonely road.
▼
▼
▼
Complement Complement
Adjunct
♦ Because we had too little time, we found it difficult to catch up with the train on the
▼
platform.
▼
Complement
▼
Complement Adjunct
♦ Tim explained why the other girls had not come to the meeting spot to his sister.
▼
Complement
→ to his sister: Complement
→ to the meeting spot: Adjunct
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♦ Which book did Mary say that Tom had recommend?
→ Mary said that Tom had recommended that book.
▼
Complement
♦ The reason why there are so many unemployed people around is that they are
unqualified workers.
→ The reason why there are so many unemployed people around: Complement
→ around: Adjunct
→ is that they are unqualified workers: Complement
4. Finiteness in Clauses
**V.I.P: Finite sentences:

Finite sentences occur as the verb.

If the verb is inflected, it is finite.

Finite sentences bear ‘tense markers’ on the verb phrase.

Finite sentences have modality on them.

Simple sentences are finite.

Independent clauses are finite.

Finite sentences are complete.
The distinction between Finite and Non- Finite clauses can be made as follows:

Finite sentences bear tense markers on the verb phrase:
Allan speaks French.
predicate (yüklem) ----It should be inflected.

Finite sentences occur as the verb element of a clause. There is an agreement between the
subject and the finite verb.
The books borrowed from the library are due in July.

Finite sentences have mood ( modality ) on them:
You must avoid meeting people from your work environment at the weekends.

The non-finite verb forms of the verb are the infinitive, the gerund, the -ing participle
115
Or the -ed participle forms:
I would like to get up early this morning.
Getting up early everyday is my life style.
Running water gathers no moss.
The project finished, they now can take a break.
Examples:
Mary sleeps like a log.( finite )
You must go to bed early to get up early.( non-finite )
Terry is sitting in his armchair.( finite )
I found Terry sitting in his armchair. ( non- finite )
Tom had telephoned his girlfriend before he got home.( finite )
Having telephoned his girlfriend, Tom got home. ( non- finite)
Although always tired, my father did not reject my offer of going for a walk.
( a non- finite verbless clause)
Walking tires me. (non-finite)
The books borrowed from the library are due in July. (finite)
non-finite
**V.I.P: Non-finite sentences are:
-
gerunds
-
infinitives
-
-ing participles
-
-ed participles
-
Small clauses
-
Dependent clauses
Examples:
►Susan found the job very difficult.
The job was difficult. Susan found it (to be) so.
►Tom was seen leaving the house early in the morning.
Tom was leaving the house and somebody saw him doing so.
►I consider [Tom (to be) hardworking.] (Complex transitive)
►I remember [Tom going to school on rainy days.] (Complex transitive)
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► [A husband criticising me every time] is the least thing I want. (Complex transitive)
► [That John answered the phone] surprised me. (complex transitive)
►It is strange that children should be asleep at this time of the day. (finite)
►I am not sure [whether John has just called me from upstairs.] (non-finite)
►I need a knife [to cut the meat with.]
I need a knife. I cut the meat with that knife.
►For Mary [to have moved to Paris] shocked everybody.
Empty
Mary moved to Paris. This shocked everybody.
►They arranged [for Tom to be here at 9 o’clock.]
Tom would be here... They arranged it so.
►I want [you not to mention this to anybody.]
You shouldn’t mention this to anybody. I want you not to do so.
► [Any attempt to overthrow the government] is doomed to failure.
Any attempt can overthrow the government. This is doomed to failure.
►It appers that after 5 suits everbody.
After 5 suits everybody. It appears so.
►This material dries easily. (not complex)
►It was because he was ill that we decided [not to go any further.]
We decided not to go any further. Because he was ill.
►Here is where the accident happened.
This is the place. The accident happened in this place.
SENTENCE TYPES
** Dependent clauses are subordinate clauses.
** Independent clauses are main clauses.
1. Simple sentences
* My friends like football.
* I enjoy playing tennis.
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2. Compound Sentences
- There are at least two independent clauses in compound sentences.
- They are connected via coordinating conjunctions.
► and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet, though, meanwhile.
-
With a conjunctive adverb
► I like oranges; however, I hate apples.
These adverbs can be in relation of addition and continuation (and then), contrast
(but,yet), choice (or), result(so), reason(for) with the other simple sentences.
♦ We can emphasize the relationship between two clauses in compound sentences by
using different combinations of conjunctions. They can express an addition, an alternative,
a combination or a combination of negatives.
Ex: They not only clean houses, but also do repairs, painting and other jobs.
I will neither sleep nor rest until this is over.
3. Complex sentences
→ It has one independent and one or two dependent clause.
► I rushed to the hospital as soon as I heard the accident.
→ We create complex sentences by joining two or more clauses with subordinating
conjunctions such as because, before, after, that, which, what, when, while, although,
though.
V.I.P: ‘though’ is both coordinator and subordinator.
V.I.P: In complex sentences, main clause is important.
In compound sentences, two sentence have equal importance.
V.I.P: Bağlacı başa aldığımızda cümle anlamlı oluyorsa ‘complex sentence’ olur.
Cümleyi olduğu gibi başa alamıyorsak ‘compound sentence’ olur.
Complex cümlelerde bağlaç ortadaysa virgule yoktur.
Compound cümlelerde bağlaç ortada olduğu halde virgul vardır.
4. Compound-complex Sentences
→ We form compound-complex sentences with three or more clauses joined by coordinating
and subordinating conjunctions.
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Ex: We hit a lamp post and it shattered the glass on the front door before I managed to bring
the bus to a halt.
CLAUSE CONNECTORS
1. Subordinators: (Adverbial Clauses)
After, although, when, while, which, what, that, though...
2. Coordinators: (Transition Signals)
For, and, nor, but, or, yet, so, meanwhile, though.... (with commas)
3. Conjunctive Adverbs:
Accordingly, furthermore, besides, consequently, nonetheless, otherwise, however, etc... (with
semicolons and commas)
Gerund or Present Participle?
We use gerunds like nouns, which can be subjects or objects. We usually use participles as
verbs with different forms of ‘be’. We use present participles, not gerunds, in reduced
versions of relative clauses or adverbial clauses.
 Talking and action are two quite different things. (Gerund)
 The man talking to Liz is her dad. (Present Participle)
Also, while gerunds anwers ‘what’, reductions answers ‘why, when’.
 Seeing is believing. (Gerund/What)
 Seeing my student, I went out. (Reduction/When)
Ex: The prime minister, making a speech at the table, was interrupted by other ministers.
(Participle)
(Adjunct)
(While the MP was making a speech at the table, he was interrupted by other ministers.)
Ex: Walking in the park, flowers smiled at me. (not Participle)
Walking in the park, I smiled at flowers. (Participle)
Conclusion:
Gerunds are complements of predicate(sentence).
Participles are adjuncts of the main clause.
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REDUCTION
1. Adverbial Clause
In adverbial clause, while reducing, we can omit subject, conjunction and auxiliary verbs.

Time
Examples:
Having arrived home, I studied.
Having studied geography and art, he began his career with the national weather service.

Reason
Examples:
Not having enough money, she could not buy a gift for him.
Being ill, I couldn’t go to work.

Condition
Examples:
If used reasonably, this tool wiil be useful for students.
If done properly, this task will seem to be successful.
2. Noun Clauses
We can reduce subject (if it is same), modal and time (if it is future).

Wh Clauses
Examples:
I don’t know what to do.
I can’t decide whether to go or not.
I really don’t know how to break the news to her.
3. Relative Clauses(Defining Relative Clauses)
We can reduce relative pronoun and auxiliary verbs.
Examples:
The man talking to the teacher is my father.
There were teachers shouting and children running out of the building.
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PARTICIPLES
1. Present Participles(Ving)

Tenses
Examples:
My sister is living with Alan just now.
She is looking for a job.

Modals(be Ving)
Examples:
The economy may be showing signs of recovery.

Reduction
Examples:
There are two students waiting outside.
The winner is the person scoring the most points in the game.

Small Clauses
Examples:
Did you hear that dog barking last night.
I saw him playing the tennis.
2. Past Participles (V3)

Tenses (Passives)
Examples:
After the accident, the police were called and the drunk driver was arrested.

Reduction
Examples:
Robert Ball, nicknamed ‘Big Bob’, was my favourite teacher.
We are concerned about people having been held in prison for years.

Modals
Examples:
Noone has been allowed to see the results.
My letter might have been posted when you went out to yours.

Adjectives
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Examples:
The confuused students said that they couldn’t understand it.
The disadvantaged people should be cared for by the wealthy.
3. Perfect Participles (having V3)

Reduction (Adverbial Clauses)
Examples:
Having written my report, I handed it to the teacher.
ADJECTIVE OR ADVERB?

The adjective defines the noun in terms of colour, origin, shape, number, material,
quality, etc.

The adverb defines the verb in terms of reason, time, direction, place, manner, etc.
Examples:
I like [my tea hot.] (C) How was my tea/Adj.
He cut [the bread clean.] (C)
How did I cut the bread? No answer
What happened to the bread?
I slid [the door shut]. (C) What happened to the door?
[He] lay on the bed [awake.] (C) How did he lay on the bed?
We [exchanged] ideas mutual(ly) (IC)
The wind froze [the lake solid.] (C) What happened to the lake?
I got [my answer right.] (C) How was my answer?
Conclusion:
If you don’t get the reply of ‘How....?’, then you ask ‘What happened to...? or ‘How/What
is....?’
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PARAGRAPH ANALYSE
Exercises:
[[[[When Job’s fine carriage drove up the inndoor at Clatham], [the first face which Amelia
Subordinator clause
recognised] was the friendly countenance of Captain Doldan] who had been pacing the steel
main clause
for an hour past i expectation of friends arrival.]]]] The captain, with shells on his frock-coat
Subordinator clause
and a crimson sash and salare, presented a military appearance], [which made Jas quite
proved to be able to claim such an acquaintance] and [the stoad civilian hailed him with a
candiality very different from the reception] [which Jas vouchsafed to his friend in Brighton
and Bond Street.]]
when it drove up to there, the first face was the countanace of Captain Doldan.
He presented a military appearance.
[[[[When
] [the first
[who
]]]]. [The captain
] was ……]]
, [which….]]
, and [[the stout……..[the reception…..]]
[[[As soon as I came to the seashore], [I was surprised to see that I had taken up my lot on
the worst side of the island]]], [[[for here, (indeed), the shore was covered with innumerable
turtles] [whereas on the other side I had found but there in a year and a half]]] [Here was
also an infinite number of fowls of many kinds]; [some of which I had not seen of before]]]
and many of them very good meat but [[those that I didn’t know the names of, except those
called penquins]].
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Exercise:
[The old gentlemen looked quite rich]; [he wore [gold glasses, white trousers], and he had a
expensive walking stick under his arm. [[[[He had picked up a book and was standing
there]], [reading it with great concentration]]] just as if he were his own armchair at
home.]]]]]
I owed my security to the masterity air of the copyright, who disdaining the letter, gave but
Main clause
subordinate clause
(while)
the full spirit of original from individual contemplation lying inside me.
1st subordinate clause
subordinate clause of the 1st
subordinate clause.
Matrix clause
1. Main clause
1. 1. Subordinate clause who (relative clause)
1.2. Subordinate clause (reduced adverbial clause)
1. 2. 1. Subordinate clause: lying inside me. (Reduced relative clause)
EVALUATION
At the beginnings, most of our friends including me are not content with contextual grammar
lesson as we have never been familiar with this type of lesson. In fact, I had no hope to
understand and pass this course. However, in time I realized that this is not the only strange
course I will get. This lesson is a really useful course because without understanding what we
have learnt, we cannot teach anybody else. This course needs steady repetition. After
everyday course, we should study again and do practices for it. In fact, it is not a difficult
course; however, in our exams, we are not sure about our answers. We reply the questions
but sometimes also we don’t know what we are doing. Nevertheless, this course will help me
in my career I think.
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