Download Bio 1305--Modern Concepts of Bioscience

Biology 1406
Houston Community College--Southwest College
Dr. Sera
Important Announcements about the Final Exam
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If you are more than 30 minutes late for class on the day of the final exam, you will
not be allowed entrance and will receive a zero on the final exam. No exceptions
will be made! I suggest that you leave home early that day.
Please bring a scantron to the final exam and a No. 2 pencil.
Exiting the exam room will not permitted once the exam has begun. Be sure to use
bathroom before the exam begins!
Review Sheet for the Final Exam
Chapter 1:
1. Diagram the levels of biological organization
2. Explain how the properties of life emerge from complex organization
3. Describe seven emergent properties associated with life
4. Distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
5. Explain how technological breakthroughs contributed to the formulation of the cell
theory and our current knowledge of the cell
6. Explain what is meant by “form fits function”
7. List and distinguish among the three domains of life
8. Briefly describe how Charles Darwin’s ideas contributed to the conceptual
framework of biology.
9. Understand the relationship among natural selection, evolution, and adaptation.
10. Outline the scientific method
11. Distinguish between discovery science and hypothesis-based science
Chapter 2:
1. Define element and compound
2. State four elements essential to life that make up 96% of living matter
3. Describe the structure of an atom
4. Define and distinguish among atomic number, mass number, and valence number
5. Given the atomic number and mass number of an atom, determine the number of
neutrons
6. Explain how electron configuration influences the chemical behavior of an atom
7. Explain the octet rule and predict how many bonds an atom might form
8. Explain why the noble gases are so unreactive
9. Define electronegativity and explain how it influences the formation of chemical
bonds
10. Distinguish among nonpolar covalent, polar covalent, and ionic bonds
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11. Describe the formation of a hydrogen bond and explain how it differs from a
covalent or ionic bond
Chapter 3:
1. Describe how water contributes to the fitness of the environment to support life
2. Describe the structure of a water molecule, and explain what properties emerge as a
result of this structure
3. Explain the relationship between the polar nature of water and its ability to form
hydrogen bonds
4. List and explain four characteristics of water that are emergent properties resulting
from hydrogen bonding
5. Describe the biological significance of the cohesiveness of water.
6. Describe adhesion and surface tension
7. Distinguish between heat and temperature
8. Explain how water’s high specific heat, high heat of vaporization, and expansion
upon freezing affect organisms or ecosystems.
9. Explain how the polarity of the water molecule makes it a versatile solvent (terms:
solution, solvent, solute)
10. Define mole and molarity and be able to calculate the molarity of a solution
11. Write the equation for the dissociation of water, and explain what is actually
transferred from one molecule to another
12. Explain the basis for the pH scale
13. Explain how acids and bases directly and indirectly affect the hydrogen ion
concentration of a solution
14. Using the bicarbonate buffer system as an example, explain how buffers work
Chapter 4:
1. Explain how carbon’s electron configuration determines the kinds and numbers of
bonds carbon will form
2. Describe how carbon skeletons may vary, and explain how this variation contributes
to the diversity and complexity of organic molecules
3. Distinguish among structural, geometric (cis-trans), and enantiomers
4. Recognize the major functional groups, and describe the chemical properties of
organic molecules in which they occur
Chapter 5:
1. Explain how organic macromolecules contribute to biological diversity
2. Describe how covalent linkages are formed and broken in macromolecules
(condensation reaction, dehydration reaction)
3. Describe the distinguishing characteristics of carbohydrates, and explain how they
are classified
4. Describe and recognize a glycosidic linkage
5. Describe the important biological functions of polysaccharides
6. Distinguish between the glycosidic linkages found in starch and cellulose, and
explain why the difference is biologically important
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7. Explain what distinguishes lipids from other major classes of macromolecules
8. Describe the unique properties, building block molecules, and biological importance
of the three groups of lipids: fats, phospholipids, and steroids
9. Distinguish between saturated and unsaturated fat and list some unique emergent
properties that are a consequence of these structural differences
10. Describe the characteristics that distinguish proteins from the major classes of
macromolecules, and explain the biologically important functions of this group
11. List and recognize four major components of an amino acid, and explain how amino
acids may be grouped according to physical and chemical properties of the side
chains
12. Identify a peptide bond and explain how it is formed
13. Explain what determines protein shape and why it is important
14. Define primary protein structure
15. Define the two types of secondary protein structure and explain role of hydrogen
bonds in maintaining the structure
16. Explain how weak interactions and disulfide bridges contribute to tertiary structure
17. Using collagen and hemoglobin as examples, describe quaternary protein structure
18. Define denaturation and explain how proteins may be denatured
19. Describe the characteristics that distinguish nucleic acids from the other groups of
macromolecules
20. Summarize the functions of nucleic acids
21. List the major components of a nucleotide, and describe how these monomers are
linked together to form a nucleic acid
22. Distinguish between a pyrimidine and an purine
23. Distinguish among nucleotide and nucleic acid
24. List the functions of nucleotides
25. Describe the three-dimensional structure of DNA (the double helix)
Chapter 6:
1. Distinguish between magnification and resolving power
2. Describe the principles, advantages, and limitations of the light microscope, TEM,
and SEM
3. Explain why compartmentalization is important in eukaryotic cells
4. Describe the structure and function of the nucleus, including the nucleolus
5. Describe the structure and function of a eukaryotic ribosome
6. List the components of the endomembrane system, describe their structures, and
functions and summarize the relationships among them
7. Describe the types of vacuoles and explain how their functions differ
8. Identify the three functional compartments of a chloroplast, and explain the
importance of compartmentalization in chloroplast function
9. Describe the structure of a mitochondrion and explain the importance of
compartmentalization in mitochondrial function
10. List basic structure and some functions of the extracellular matrix in animal cells and
the cell wall in plants.
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11. Describe the structure of intercellular junctions found in plant and animal cells, and
relate their structure to function.
Chapter 7:
1. Describe the function of the plasma (cell) membrane
2. Describe the fluid-mosaic model of the cell membrane
3. Describe the fluid properties of the cell membrane and explain how membrane
fluidity is influenced by membrane composition
4. Explain how hydrophobic interactions determine membrane structure
5. Explain how proteins are spatially arranged in the cell membrane and how they
contribute to membrane function
6. Describe factors that affect selective permeability of membranes
7. Distinguish between active and passive transport
8. Define diffusion; explain what causes it and why it is a spontaneous process
9. Define osmosis and predict the direction of water movement based on differences in
solute concentration (terms: hypotonic, isotonic, hypertonic)
10. Describe how living cells with and without cell walls regulate water balance (terms:
turgid, flaccid, plasmolysis, crenation)
11. Describe facilitated diffusion
12. Explain how active transport differs from diffusion
13. Explain how large molecules are transported across the cell membrane (exocytosis
and endocytosis, etc.)
Chapter 8:
1. Explain the role of catabolic and anabolic pathways in the energy exchanges of
cellular metabolism
2. Distinguish between kinetic and potential energy
3. Distinguish between open and closed systems
4. Explain the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics
5. Explain why highly ordered living organisms do not violate the Second Law of
Thermodynamics
6. Distinguish between exergonic and endergonic reactions
7. Describe the function of ATP in the cell
8. Explain how ATP performs cellular work
9. List the three components of ATP and identify the major class of macromolecules to
which it belongs
10. Describe the energy profile of a chemical reaction including activation energy, free
energy change, and transition state
11. Describe the function of enzymes in biological systems
12. Explain the relationship between enzyme structure and enzyme specificity
13. Describe the catalytic cycle of an enzyme
14. Describe several mechanisms by which enzymes lower activation energy
15. Explain how enzyme activity can be regulated or controlled by environmental
conditions, cofactors, competitive inhibitors, noncompetitive inhibitors, and
feedback inhibition.
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Chapter 9:
1. Explain energy flow and chemical recycling in ecosystems
2. Describe the overall summary equation for cellular respiration
3. Distinguish between substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation
4. Explain how exergonic oxidation of glucose is coupled to endergonic synthesis of
ATP
5. Define oxidation and reduction
6. Explain how redox reactions are involved in energy exchanges
7. Define coenzyme and list those involved in respiration (e.g., NAD+)
8. Describe the role of ATP in coupled reactions
9. Explain why ATP is required for the preparatory steps of glycolysis
10. Write a summary equation for glycolysis and describe where it occurs in the cell
11. Describe where pyruvate is oxidized to acetyl CoA, what molecules are produced,
and how it links glycolysis to the Krebs cycle
12. Describe the location, and the molecules in and molecules out for the Krebs Cycle
13. Explain at what point during cellular respiration glucose is completely oxidized
14. Explain how the exergonic slide of electrons down the electron transport chain is
coupled in the endergonic production of ATP by chemiosmosis
15. Describe the process of chemiosmosis
16. Summarize the net ATP yield from the oxidation of a glucose molecule by
constructing an ATP ledger that includes coenzyme production during the different
stages of glycolysis and cellular respiration
17. Describe the fate of pyruvate in the absence of oxygen
18. Explain why fermentation is necessary
19. Distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic metabolism
20. Describe how food molecules other than glucose can be oxidized to make ATP
21. Explain how ATP production is controlled by the cell and what role the allosteric
enzyme, phosphofructokinase, plays in this process
Chapter 10:
1. Distinguish between autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition
2. Describe the location and structure of the chloroplast
3. Explain how chloroplast structure relates to its function
4. Write a summary equation for photosynthesis
5. Explain the role of REDOX reactions in photosynthesis
6. Describe the wavelike and particle-like behaviors of light
7. Explain why the absorption spectrum for chlorophyll differs from the action
spectrum for photosynthesis
8. List the wavelengths of light that are most effective for photosynthesis
9. Explain what happens when chlorophyll or accessory pigments absorb photons
10. List the components of a photosystem and explain their function
11. Trace electron flow through photosystems II and I
12. Compare cyclic and linear electron flow and explain the relationship between these
components of the light reactions
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13. Summarize the light reactions with an equation and describe where they occur
14. Describe important differences in chemiosmosis between oxidative phosphorylation
in mitochondria and photophosphorylation in chloroplasts
15. Summarize the carbon-fixing reactions of the Calvin cycle and describe changes that
occur in the carbon skeleton of the intermediates.
16. Describe the role of ATP and NADPH in the Calvin cycle
17. Describe the fate of the photosynthetic products
18. Know that CAM and C4 are alternatives to regular photosynthesis and how they are
different from each other and from regular photosynthesis
Chapter 11:
1. Describe the basic signal-transduction pathway used for mating in yeast.
2. Explain how plant and animal hormones travel to target cells.
3. List and briefly define the three stages of cell signaling.
4. Describe the nature of a ligand-receptor interaction and state how such interactions
initiate a signal-transduction system.
5. State where signal receptors may be located in target cells.
6. Compare and contrast G-protein-linked receptors, tyrosine-kinase receptors, and
ligand-gated ion channels.
7. List two advantages of using a multistep pathway in the transduction stage of cell
signaling.
8. Explain how an original signal molecule can produce a cellular response when it
may not even enter the target cell.
9. Describe how phosphorylation propagates signal information.
10. Define the term ‘second messenger’. Briefly describe the role of these molecules in
signaling pathways.
11. Describe how signal information is transduced into cellular responses in the
cytoplasm and in the nucleus.
12. Explain apoptosis.
13. Describe the events that may trigger signals from within a cell to trigger apoptosis.
14. Describe the role of apoptosis in normal development and degenerative disease in
vertebrates.
Chapter 12:
1. Explain how cell division functions in reproduction, growth, and repair.
2. Describe the structural organization of a prokaryotic and eukaryotic genome.
3. Describe the major events of eukaryotic cell division that enable the genome of one
cell to be passed on to two daughter cells.
4. Describe how the chromosome number changes throughout the human life cycle.
5. List the phases of the cell cycle and describe the sequence of events that occurs
during each phase.
6. List the phases of mitosis and describe the events characteristic of each phase.
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7. Recognize the phases of mitosis from diagrams and micrographs.
8. Draw or describe the mitotic spindle, including centrosomes, kinetochore
microtubules, nonkinetochore microtubules, and centrioles (in animal cells).
9. Describe the changes in the mitotic spindle during each phase of mitosis.
10. Compare cytokinesis in animals and plants.
11. Describe the process of binary fission in bacteria
12. Describe the roles of checkpoints, cyclin, Cdks, and MPF in the cell cycle control
system.
13. Describe the internal and external factors that influence the cell cycle control system.
14. Explain how the abnormal cell division of cancerous cells escapes normal cell cycle
controls.
15. Distinguish between benign, malignant, and metastatic tumors.
Chapter 13:
1. Explain in general terms how traits are inherited from parents to offspring.
2. Distinguish between asexual and sexual reproduction.
3. Distinguish between the following pairs of terms:
a. somatic cell and gamete
b. autosome and sex chromosome
4. Explain how haploid and diploid cells differ from each other. State which cells in the
human body are diploid and which are haploid.
5. Explain why fertilization and meiosis must alternate in all sexual life cycles.
6. Distinguish between the three life cycle patterns characteristic of eukaryotes, and
name one organism that displays each pattern.
7. List the phases of meiosis I and meiosis II and describe the events characteristic of
each phase.
8. Recognize the phases of meiosis from diagrams or micrographs.
9. Describe the process of synapsis during prophase I and explain how genetic
recombination occurs.
10. Describe three events that occur during Meiosis I, but not during Mitosis
11. Explain how independent assortment, crossing over, and random fertilization
contribute to genetic variation in sexually reproducing organisms.
12. Explain why heritable variation was crucial to Darwin's theory of evolution.
Chapter 14:
1. Explain how Mendel’s particulate mechanism differed from the blending theory of
inheritance.
2. Define the following terms: true breeding, hybridization, monohybrid cross, P
generation, F1 generation, F2 generation.
3. List and explain the four components of Mendel’s hypothesis that led him to deduce
the law of segregation.
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4. Use a Punnett square to predict the results of a monohybrid cross, stating the
phenotypic and genotypic ratios of the F2 generation.
5. Distinguish between the following pairs of terms: dominant and recessive;
heterozygous and homozygous; genotype and phenotype.
6. Explain how a testcross can be used to determine if an individual with the dominant
phenotype is homozygous or heterozygous.
7. Use a Punnett square to predict the results of a dihybrid cross and state the
phenotypic and genotypic ratios of the F2 generation.
8. State Mendel’s law of independent assortment and describe how this law can be
explained by the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis.
9. Use the rule of multiplication to calculate the probability that a particular F2
individual will be homozygous recessive or dominant.
10. Given a Mendelian cross, use the rule of addition to calculate the probability that a
particular F2 individual will be heterozygous.
11. Explain why it was important that Mendel used large sample sizes in his studies.
12. Give an example of incomplete dominance and explain why it does not support the
blending theory of inheritance.
13. Explain how phenotypic expression in the heterozygote differs with complete
dominance, incomplete dominance, and co-dominance.
14. Explain why dominant alleles are not necessarily more common in a population.
15. Describe the inheritance of the ABO blood system and explain why the IA and IB
alleles are said to be co-dominant.
16. Define and give examples of pleiotropy and epistasis.
17. Describe a simple model for polygenic inheritance and explain why most polygenic
characters are described in quantitative terms.
18. Describe how environmental conditions can influence the phenotypic expression of
a character. Explain what is meant by “a norm of reaction.”
19. Explain why studies of human inheritance are not as easily conducted as Mendel’s
work with peas.
20. Given a simple family pedigree, deduce the genotypes for specific family members.
21. Explain how a lethal recessive allele can be maintained in a population.
22. Describe the inheritance and expression of cystic fibrosis and sickle-cell disease.
23. Explain why lethal dominant genes are much rarer than lethal recessive genes.
24. Give an example of a late-acting lethal dominant in humans and explain how it may
escape elimination by natural selection.
25. Define and give examples of multifactorial disorders in humans.
26. Explain how carrier recognition, fetal testing, and newborn screening can be used in
genetic screening and counseling.
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Chapter 15:
1. Explain how the observations of cytologists and geneticists provided the basis for
the chromosome theory of inheritance.
2. Explain why Drosophila melanogaster is a good experimental organism for genetic
studies.
3. Describe how sex is genetically determined in humans and explain the significance
of the SRY gene.
4. Explain why sex-linked diseases are more common in human males.
5. Describe the inheritance patterns and symptoms of color blindness, Duchenne
muscular dystrophy, and hemophilia.
6. Describe the process of X inactivation in female mammals. Explain how this
phenomenon produces the tortoiseshell coloration in cats.
7. Distinguish between linked genes and sex-linked genes.
8. Describe the independent assortment of chromosomes during Meiosis I. Explain
how independent assortment of chromosomes produces genetic recombination of
unlinked genes.
9. Distinguish between parental and recombinant phenotypes.
10. Explain why linked genes do not assort independently. Explain how crossing over
can unlink genes.
11. Explain how nondisjunction can lead to aneuploidy.
12. Define trisomy, triploidy, and polyploidy. Explain how these major chromosomal
changes occur and describe possible consequences.
13. Distinguish among deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations.
14. Describe the type of chromosomal alterations responsible for the following human
disorders: Down syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, Turner syndrome, cri du chat
syndrome, and chronic myelogenous leukemia.
15. Explain why extranuclear genes are not inherited in a Mendelian fashion.
Chapter 16:
1. Explain why researchers originally thought protein was the genetic material.
2. Explain how the experiments performed by the following scientists provided
evidence that DNA is the genetic material:
a. Frederick Griffith
b. Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase
c. Erwin Chargaff
3. Explain how Watson and Crick deduced the structure of DNA and describe the
evidence they used. Explain the significance of the research of Rosalind Franklin.
4. Describe the structure of DNA. Explain the base-pairing rule and describe its
significance.
5. Describe the semiconservative model of replication.
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6. Describe the process of DNA replication, including the role of the origins of
replication and replication forks.
7. Explain the role of DNA polymerases in replication.
8. Distinguish between the leading strand and the lagging strand.
9. Explain how the lagging strand is synthesized even though DNA polymerase can
add nucleotides only to the 3’ end. Describe the significance of Okazaki fragments.
10. Explain the roles of DNA ligase, primer, primase, helicase, topoisomerase, and
single-strand binding proteins.
11. Define “antiparallel” and explain why continuous synthesis of both DNA strands is
not possible.
12. Explain the roles of DNA polymerase, mismatch repair enzymes, and nuclease in
DNA proofreading and repair.
13. Compare a bacterial chromosome and a eukaryotic chromosome.
14. Describe how the packing of chromatin changes during the course of the cell cycle.
Chapter 17:
1. Explain how RNA differs from DNA.
2. Briefly explain how information flows from gene to protein. Is the central dogma
ever violated?
3. Distinguish between transcription and translation.
4. Compare where transcription and translation occur in bacteria and in eukaryotes.
5. Define “codon” and explain the relationship between the linear sequence of codons
on mRNA and the linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide.
6. Explain why polypeptides begin with methionine when they are synthesized.
7. Explain what it means to say that the genetic code is redundant and unambiguous.
8. Explain the significance of the reading frame during translation.
9. Explain the evolutionary significance of a nearly universal genetic code.
10. Explain how RNA polymerase recognizes where transcription should begin.
Describe the role of the promoter and the transcription unit.
11. Explain the general process of transcription, including the three major steps of
initiation, elongation, and termination.
12. Explain how RNA is modified after transcription in eukaryotic cells.
13. Describe the structure and function of tRNA.
14. Explain the significance of wobble.
15. Explain how tRNA is joined to the appropriate amino acid.
16. Describe the structure and functions of ribosomes.
17. Describe the process of translation (including initiation, elongation, and termination)
and explain which enzymes are needed for each stage.
18. Describe the significance of polyribosomes.
19. Explain what determines the primary structure of a protein and describe how a
polypeptide must be modified before it becomes fully functional.
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20. Define “point mutations”. Distinguish between base-pair substitutions and base-pair
insertions. Give an example of each and note the significance of such changes.
21. Distinguish between a missense and a nonsense mutation.
22. Why is an insertion or deletion more likely to be deleterious than a substitution?
23. Define the term ‘mutation’. Give an example of a physical and a chemical agent of
mutation.
Chapter 19:
1. Recount the scientific investigation by Wendell Stanley that led to the discovery of
viruses.
2. List and describe the structural components of viruses.
3. Explain why viruses are obligate intracellular parasites.
4. Explain how a virus identifies its host cell.
5. Distinguish between the lytic and lysogenic reproductive cycles, using phage  as an
example.
6. Describe the reproductive cycle of an HIV retrovirus.
7. List some characteristics that viruses share with living organisms and explain why
viruses do not fit our usual definition of life.
8. Describe viroids and prions. Know some diseases caused by prions, especially.
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