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Biology Study Guide Name:__________________________ What is homeostasis? Why is it important in living organisms? (Ch 1) Homeostasis- Organisms must maintain relatively constant physical and chemical conditions to stay alive. Ex.) regulation of body temperature, water, nutrients, blood pressure, etc. Chapters 3-6 Ecology What is a species? (3.1) Group of similar organisms that can breed and produce fertile offspring. Examples) humans, deer, oak trees 1.) In the food web, label each organism: (Some may have more than one label) (3.3) P = producer 1 = Primary Consumer 2= Secondary Consumer 3 = Tertiary Consumer 2.) Then label each animal as either a: H = herbivore C = carnivore O = omnivore In which direction does the arrow point on a food chain? (3.3) Toward the direction that energy flows when one organism eats another. What type of organism is at the bottom of every food chain? primary producers OR autotrophs What does the snake eat on the above food web? frog What eats the worm? bird AND frog What organism is an autotroph? tree (it makes its own food from the sun through photosynthesis) Make a list of 3 biotic factors and 3 abiotic factors. (3.1) Abiotic: rocks, weather, soil type (anything not living) Biotic: competition with another species, lack of food, disease (anything living that affects another) How much energy is transferred from level to level in a food chain? 10 % (3.3) Label how much energy remains at each step of the following food chain: grass → mouse → hawk 100% 10% 1% What is biomass? Would the top or bottom of the food chain have more? (3.3) The total amount of living matter at each trophic level. The bottom of the food chain has more biomass because there are more organisms at the bottom (primary producers) What is the difference between primary and secondary succession? (Ch 4.3) Primary succession starts with bare rock, while secondary succesion occurs after an existing community is disturbed. What type of succession occurs when a forest burns in a fire? secondary (4.3) What type of succession occurs when an uncut lawn grows into a forest? secondary (4.3) What type of succession occurs after a lava flow covers the land? primary (4.3) What is the first species to colonize bare land called? pioneer species (4.3) Succession ends when a climax community is formed, typically a forest. (4.3) A population grows exponentially until it reaches carrying capacity, the point where deaths equal births. (5.1) List some limiting factors that restrict population sizes (5.2) density dependent: competition, lack of food, disease density independent: disease, weather, lack of shelter Draw a graph that shows a population growing exponentially until it reaches carrying capacity. (5.1-5.2) Carrying capacity How do invasive (exotic) species affect an ecosystem. (Ch 6) Invasive species do not have natural predators and tend to reproduce exponentially, disrupting the food web, and out-competing native species for limited resources causing them to die off. Match the following terms about the environment: A- smog B- acid rain C- greenhouse gases __B__ __E__ __A__ __F__ D- CFCs E- global warming F- UV rays Precipitation that can kill plants and change the chemistry of soil. _D_ Destroy the ozone layer Caused by buildup of greenhouse gases from burning fossil fuels. Smoke caused by burning fossil fuels. _C_ Traps heat at the Earth's surface. Ozone blocks these. What is biodiversity? (6) The number of different species in an ecosystem. Chemistry / Biomolecules What is a polar molecule? (2.2) A molecule with an unequal distribution of charge. (+ and a - end). Water is a polar molecule. What is a hydrogen bond (van der walls force)? How strong is it compared to other bonds? A bond between the + and - ends of a polar molecule such as water. It is relatively weak, but allows water molecules to stick together. What is an enzyme? How can extreme changes in temperature or pH affect the structure and function of proteins/enzymes An enzyme is a protein that helps speed up reactions in organisms. Changes in temper or pH denature or change the shape of enzymes, making them useless as the substrate no longer fits into the active site (lock and key example) Use the following terms to complete the table about biomolecules (2.3): FUNCTIONS: (energy) (energy storage) (build structure/enzymes) (store genetic information) EXAMPLES: (starches, sugars, cellulose) (fats, oils, waxes) (DNA/RNA) (muscle tissue) (enzymes) Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids Nucleic Acids Give the function energy build structure/enzymes energy storage store genetic information Give at least one example of this type of molecule. starches, sugars, cellulose fats, oils, waxes DNA/RNA 1.muscle tissue 2.enzymes Cells- Ch 7-9 List the three parts of the cell theory below (7.1): 1. All living things are made of cells. 2. Cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things. 3. New cells are produced from existing cells. What is an organelle? (7.1) A specialized structure found within a cell. Complete the following tables by checking the correct box: (7.1-7.2) Statement Prokaryotic Cells lacking internal membrane-bound organelles x Do not have a nucleus x Usually are the smallest cells in existence. x Plants and animals Typically unicellular Eukaryotic Both x x Contains DNA x Contains a cell membrane x Is this cell prokaryotic or eukaryotic? How do you know? (7.1) Prokaryotic, it does not have a nucleus or membrane bound organelles. Matching (7.2) ___j___mitochondria ___d___chloroplasts ___a___cell wall ___c___cell membrane ___b___nucleus ___e___lysosome ___f___vacuole ___k___golgi apparatus ___h___ ER ___g___ribosomes ___i___cytoplasm a. outside protective covering of a plant cell b. control center of the cell c. control what enters and leaves the cell d. traps sunlight and changes it into chemical energy e. digests waste or worn out cell parts f. temporary storage for water, food and enzymes g. makes proteins h. folded membranes, site of protein synthesis i. gel material inside the cell j. transforms energy for the cell k. flattened stack of membranes that modifies proteins Why do many organelles have folds? (7.2) Folded membranes provide for more surface area in a small space for chemical reactions to occur. Label the following Cell. (7.2) A. endoplasmic reticulum B. cytoplasm C. golgi apparatus D. nucleolus E. nucleus F. mitochondria G. centrioles H. ribosome I. cell membrane OR plasma membrane 1.) Is this cell: (circle one): A.) plant B.) animal How do you know? It is round, does not contain chloroplasts, and contains centrioles 2.) Is this cell: (circle one) A.) prokaryotic How do you know? It has a nucleus and membrane bound organelles. B.) eukaryotic Label the following Cell. (7.2) 1.) Is this cell: (circle one): A.) plant B.) animal How do you know? It has chloroplasts, a cell wall, a large central vacuole, and is square shaped 2.) Is this cell: (circle one) A.) prokaryotic B.) eukaryotic How do you know? It has a nucleus and membrane bound organelles. Statement Contain chloroplasts Plant Animal x Has a nucleus x Contains centrioles x Contains DNA x Have a large central vacuole x Contain a cell wall x Contains a cell membrane Both x Chapter 7.3 What is the function of the plasma membrane? Controls what enters and leaves the cell / Forms a barrier between the cell and its environement. What would happen if the plasma membrane was not selectively permeable? The cell would not be able to control what enters and leaves. The cell would die. Draw and label a phospholipid. O - polar head || - 2 fatty acid tails Why do the heads and tails line up the way they do in a phospholipid bilayer? The heads are polar and attracted to water. The tails are nonpolar and avoid water. A B D C Part A is a membrane protein. Its function within the membrane is to allow larger molecules to pass through the membrane. Part B is a phospholipid. Its function within the membrane is to forms the barrier between the cell and its environment. Part C is a cholesterol. Its function within the membrane is to stabilize the membrane (prevents holes from forming). Part D is a carbohydrate chain. Its function within the membrane is to receive communication from other cells. Complete the following table. (Ch 7.3) Simple Diffusion Energy Required? (Y/N) Substances move: With (high to low) OR Against (low to high) the gradient? Protein Used? (Y/N) If yes give the type Explain the process / How does it work? Facilitated Diffusion Endocytosis / Exocytosis N N Y with with against N Y, transport or channel N Flow of particles from high to low concentration Particles move The cell surrounds and through a membrane takes in (endo) or expells protein waste (exo) What is osmosis? (7.3) The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane. Explain how diffusion works. (7.3) Particles flow from high to low concentration through a process called Brownian motion. Diffusion stops when equilibrium is reached. If a cell with a salt concentration of 50% is placed in a pure water (salt concentration = 0%), what will happen to the cell? water enters the cell (the cell may swell or burst) What type of solution is this? hypotonic If a cell with a salt concentration of 60% is placed in a solution with a salt concentration of 97% what will happen to the cell? water leaves the cell (the cell may shrivel) What type of solution is this? hypertonic If a cell with a salt concentration of 10% is placed in a solution with a salt concentration of 10% what will happen to the cell? water enters and leaves the cell at the same rate What type of solution is this? isotonic What is equilibrium? When the net concentration is not changing such as when water or particles flow in and out at the same rate. Type of Solution Concentration of solutes Flow of Water Effect on Cell Isotonic Same both inside and out In and out at the same rate equilibrium Hypotonic The solution has a lower solute concentration Water flows in The cell swells or may burst Hypertonic The solution has a higher solute concentration Water flows out The cell shrinks Drawing Chapter 8-9 The main energy molecule for cells is __. a. AMP b. ADP c. ATP d. ARP Breaking these parts of ATP releases energy for the cell. a. adenine bonds b. phosphate bonds c. ribose bonds d. glucose bonds How would you make this ADP molecule into ATP? adding a phosphate What happens when a phosphate is added to ADP? a. energy is released b. energy is stored c. energy is lost d. energy is fun What foods contain the most energy for humans? a. proteins b. lipids c. nucleic acids d. carbohydrates Cellular Respiration: What does each of the following represent in CELLULAR RESPIRATION? 6CO2 C6H12O6 6H2O 6O2 ENERGY carbon dioxide ATP glucose (simple sugar) water oxygen Equation for cellular respiration: C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + ENERGY (ATP) Photosynthesis: Equation for photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 6H2O + ENERGY (Sunlight)→ C6H12O6 + 6 O2 What does ENERGY represent in photosynthesis? sunlight How are cellular respiration and photosynthesis related? They are opposites. Photosynthesis makes food, cellular respiration breaks food down. Use the following picture to answer the following questions. (Ch 7,9) AA What organelle is this? chloroplast Part A labeled in the diagram refers to what part of the organelle? thylakoid Would this organelle be found in a plant or animal? plant What cellular energy process would occur in this organelle? photosynthesis What organelle is this? mitochondria What cellular energy process occurs in this organelle? cellular respiration Why is it folded? Folded membranes provide for more surface area for the chemical reactions of cellular respiration to produce more ATP (energy) from food. Chapter 10 What is the purpose of mitosis? (Why is mitosis necessary in an organism?) - to replace dead cells, growth, reproduction in asexual organisms - It is necessary because large cells are not efficient in taking in nutrients due to lack of surface area AND a large cell would not have enough copies of its DNA to support its protein needs. What is a chromosome made of? Draw and label a chromosome: A chromosome is made of condensed DNA. Place an X in the box or boxes that match the description about interphase and mitosis: Statement Cell growth occurs Nuclear division occurs Normal cell metabolism Protein production is high Chromosomes are duplicated DNA synthesis occurs Cells spend the majority of the time in this Mitochondria and other organelles are made. Consists of G1, G2, and S phases Consists of prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase Interphase Mitosis x x x x x x x x x x Place an X in the box or boxes that match the description: not a part of mitosis 1st phase of mitosis chromatin condenses to form chromosomes chromosomes separate chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell the cell begins to split cytokinesis follow this step the nuclear envelope begins to disintegrate DNA is copied and the cell grows in size chromosomes are visible in these phases the nuclear envelope re-appears Interphase Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase x x x x x x x x x x x x x x What controls each phase of the cell cycle? (10.3) What happens when the cell cycle is uncontrolled? (10.3) - cyclins (proteins that regulate the cell cycle) -Uncontrolled cell division is cancer, which forms a mass of cells called a tumor. How is meiosis different from mitosis? (11.4) Number of cells at start: Mitosis 1 Meiosis 1 Number of cells at end 2 4 Are the cells identical or unique identical (same as parent cell) unique (all different) Type of reproduction (sexual or asexual) asexual sexual Produces what type of cells (sex or body) body sex Number of divisions (1 or 2) 1 2 Change in chromosome number NO (cells stay diploid) Produces haploid cells from a diploid What does it mean for a cell to be "differentiated"? How can a cell be differentiated if they all have the same DNA? The process by which cells become specialized to perform a specific function. They start as stem cells. Different genes are activated in different cells. Place an X in the box that applies about sexual vs. asexual reproduction: (10.2: P 277-278): Sexual reproduction Asexual reproduction Occurs in single celled organisms x Occurs in animals x Occurs in bacteria x Produces genetically identical cells x Produces genetically different cells x Occurs quickly x Involves the fusion of 2 parent cells x Responsible for genetic diversity / adaptations that allow x organisms to survive in a range of conditions Chapter 11- Genetics The scientist that first applied probability to genetics to understand how traits are passed from parents to offspring was Gregor Mendel. He studied pea plants. Explain the rule of dominance. Give an example. The rule of dominance states that a dominant allele completely covers up a recessive allele. There is no in-between form of a trait when an organism has one of each. For example, a pea plant that is heterozygous (has one allele for tall, one for short) is tall since tall is dominant to short. Matching: Use the 3 terms below to fill in the blanks below. Rule of Dominance Law of Segregation Law of Independent Assortment 1. The principle that living things have two copies of each gene (alleles) and that they therefore can pass on two different types of gametes is: Law of Segregation. 2. The principle stating that genes for different traits are inherited separately of one another is: Law of Independent Assortment. Punnett Squares Label each of the following genotypes as homozygous dominant, heterozygous, or recessive: TT: homozygous dominant Tt :heterozygous tt: recessive If T= tall and t= short, give the phenotype of each of the following: TT: tall Tt: tall tt: short Two short (recessive) pea plants are crossed. Could they produce a tall pea plant? NO, no allele for short Why or why not? Show your Punnett Square(s) here: Ratio= _____ tall : _____ short Two tall pea plants are crossed. Could they produce a short pea plant? YES Why or why not? Show your Punnett Square(s) here: Using the above information from the Punnett Square, an individual that is homozygous dominant would have what genotype? TT and phenotype? tall What other genotype would yield the same phenotype? Tt Why isn't a plant that is heterozygous medium height? A dominant allele covers up a recessive allele completely (rule of dominance) Chapter 12- 13: DNA / Making Proteins What are the 3 parts to a DNA nucleotide? deoxyribose sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base. (12.2: P 345) How do the nitrogenous bases in DNA pair up? Adenine with thymine (A-T) How do the nitrogenous bases in RNA pair up? Adenine with uracil (A-U) Cytosine with guanine (C-G) Cytosine with guanine (C-G) Does each cell in your body have the same exact DNA? YES DNA holds the instructions for making proteins. Why are the proteins produced different in a hair cell and a skin cell even though they have the same DNA? Different genes are activated in different cells because cells are specialized. What is the Central Dogma of Biology? Transcription DNA RNA Translation protein The process of DNA being copied into new strands of DNA is called what? replication The process of DNA being copied into a strand of mRNA is called what? transcription The process where the instructions on mRNA is read to produce a protein is called what? translation All proteins start with a start codon and end with a stop codon. What are the three differences between DNA and RNA? DNA RNA # of strands 2 1 bases Adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine (A-T , C- Adenine, uracil, cytosine, guanine (A -U , CG) G) sugar deoxyribose ribose A codon is a group of how many bases in mRNA? 3 Explain how a protein is made starting with a DNA strand in the nucleus by placing the following in order: __2__ An mRNA copy of the DNA is made __4__ Each mRNA codon is paired with a matching tRNA anticodon __3__ The mRNA leaves the nucleus and travels to the ribosome in the cytoplasm. __1__ The DNA strand is unzipped __5__ A protein chain is made and bonded together with peptide bonds. __6__ The protein chain is released when a stop codon is reached. Compare and contrast point mutation and frameshift mutation. A point mutation substitutes one base for another and affects one amino acid in a protein ONLY. A frameshift mutation inserts or deletes a base and can affect every amino acid in the DNA strand located after it. Which type of mutation does the most damage to a protein? Why? Frameshift, because it affect more amino acids in a protein. What is the difference between a protein and an amino acid? A protein is a chain of amino acids held together by peptide bonds. A DNA segment is changed from AATACCGATAGCGAA to AATACCGATCAGCGAA. Hint: Break up each strand into codons and find the amino acids using the chart below. What type of mutation is this? frameshift (a C was added) What protein did the original strand code for? Hint: Break up each strand into codons and find the amino acids using the chart below. DNA: AAT mRNA: UUA ACC GAT AGC GAA UGG CUA UCG CUU protein: leu-------trp-----leu-----ser------leu What does the new strand code for? DNA: AAT ACC GAT CAG CGA A mRNA: UUA UGG CUA GUC GCU U protein: leu-------trp-----leu-------val------ala How can this affect an organism? This mutation affects every amino acid in the protein past the frameshift. Many mutations have no effect on the organism, although it has the potential to cause a problem, including cancer, depending on the type of cell in which it occurred in. For a mutation to be passed to offspring, what type of cell must it occur in: a gamete or body cell? Why? A gamete or sex cell is the only cell where a mutation can be passed to offspring. Chapter 16-17 Explain the endosymbiont theory in as much detail as possible. Include in your explanation the key termsmitochondria, chloroplast, prokaryote, and eukaryote. Use complete sentences. (Ch 14) -Mitochondria and chloroplasts were originally prokaryotes were ingested by a larger prokaryote. -Mitochondria and chloroplasts became energy producing organelles for eukaryote. -This is how all eukaryotic cells evolved. -This rejects the idea of spontaneous generation and builds upon the idea of biogenesis. All multicellular organisms begin as a single cell. (True / False) Explain how natural selection is related to Darwin’s theory of evolution. Use key terms such as- natural selection, adaptation, DNA, anatomy, biochemistry, etc…(ch 16) 1) Natural selection leads organisms that are best adapted to their environment to survive and reproduce, changing the composition of future populations. 2) Adaptations such as mimicry, camouflage or physiological changes aid in an organism’s survival. 3) Similarities in DNA (the more similar the sequence the more closely they are related), anatomical structures (analogous, homologous, vestigial structures, embryology), and biochemistry (proteins/ amino acids) provide evidence for evolution. Example: A mutation causes a giraffe to have a longer neck in an environment where food on lower branches is a limiting factor. This giraffe is able to reach the leaves higher on the trees, so it has access to food when others do not. This is an adaptation that provides greater fitness and this giraffe will survive longer and reproduce more over time leading to more giraffes in the population with longer necks. Compare and contrast homologous and analogous structures: Description Homologous Structures that are shared by related species and that have structure been inherited from a common ancestor. NOTE: The structure is similar, the function may not be. Example Related through evolution (Y/N) Bird wings, alligator arms, frog arms, horse legs. y Analogous structure Body parts that share common function, but not structure. Vestigial structure Inherited from ancestors, but have lost most or all of their original Human appendix, y function, likely due to the structure not providing an advantage or hipbone on the disadvantage for natural selection to act on it. bottlenose dolphin Compare convergent evolution to divergent evolution: Type of evolution Description Divergent When two species evolve traits making Evolution them more different. Convergent Evolution When two species evolve traits making them more similar. Bird wing, a bee's n wing Example A species is split into 2 groups and each adapts characteristics beneficial to their habitat, forming a new species 2 unrelated species adapt to an environment by evolving similar traits 1) Hawaiian honeycreepers are a group of birds with similar body shape and size, but they vary greatly in color and in beak shape. Their beak shapes changed over time in response to different foods available. This is an example of which of the following? a. spontaneous generation b. artificial selection c. convergent evolution d. divergent evolution 2) The flying squirrel of North America closely resembles the flying phalanger of Australia. They are similar in size and appearance because they live in similar habitats. a. spontaneous generation b. artificial selection c. convergent evolution d. divergent evolution 3) Type of selection that favors only the average individuals in a population. a. directional b. stabilizing c. disruptive d. natural 4) Type of selection that favors individuals with both of the extreme variations of a trait and eliminates the intermediate phenotypes. a. directional b. stabilizing c. disruptive d. natural 5) Type of selection that favors only one of the extreme variations of a trait in a population. a. directional b. stabilizing c. disruptive d. natural 6) The transport of genes in and out of a gene pool by migrating individuals is called: a. gene flow b. gene drift c. direct evolution d. random mating 7) Each species were once similar to an ancestral species but have become increasingly distinct from the original because they have adapted to different resources available. a. spontaneous generation b. artificial selection c. convergent evolution d. divergent evolution 8) When distantly related organisms evolve similar traits when they occupy similar environments in different parts of the world it is known as: a. spontaneous generation b. artificial selection c. convergent evolution d. divergent evolution 9) The concept that speciation and evolution occurs quickly in rapid bursts with long periods of genetic equilibrium in between is called: a. genetic drift b. reproductive isolation c. gradualism d. punctuated equilibrium 10) A population of squirrels lived in Arizona many many years ago. As the Colorado River cut through the land to create the Grand Canyon the squirrels were split into two groups, one on each side. The northern squirrels had bushy tails and gray fur. The southern squirrels became lean and scrappy. They could not reproduce with each other any more and became two separate species. This is an example of: a. geographic isolation b. genetic drift c. gene flow d. stabilizing selection 11) The idea that species originate through a gradual change of adaptations. a. punctuated equilibrium b. directional selection c. convergent evolution d. gradualism 12) This occurs when formerly interbreeding organisms can no longer interbreed and produce fertile offspring. a. reproductive isolation b. artificial selection c. punctuated equilibrium d. disruptive selection 13) This occurs whenever a physical barrier divides a population. a. geographic isolation b. genetic drift c. gene flow d. stabilizing selection 14) This disrupts genetic equilibrium by altering the allelic frequency of a population by chance events. a. genetic drift b. gene flow c. immigration d. gradualism 15) Two populations of tree frogs of the same species live in Pinhook Bog in Michigan City. One population mates in the spring and one population mates in the fall. They cannot breed with each other because of their mating cycles. This is an example of: a. reproductive isolation b. artificial selection c. punctuated equilibrium d. disruptive selection Chapters 18 What is taxonomy (systematics)? (Ch 18, 512) To organize living things into groups that have biological meaning. What is a cladogram? (517) A diagram that links groups of organisms by showing how evolutionary lines, or lineages, branched off from common ancestors. Look at figure 18-9 (P 519). Clade Mammalia and amniota share what derived characteristics? four limbs, amniotic egg (egg with membranes) Look at figure 18-19. Reptiles share a common ancestor with what other species? amphibians What did Carolus Linnaeus develop in the 1730s? Why is this important? (512) The two word naming system called binomial nomenclature. Each species is assigned a two part scientific name consisting of: Genus species (note: the genus is capitalized, species is not). List the levels of classification in Linneaus' classification system from most broad (highest # of organisms) to most specific (fewest # of organisms) (514) Kingdon, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species most species-----------------------------------> fewest species How many different organisms share the same species name? (514) only 1 organism Fill out the following table: (524) Kingdom Domain Cell Type # of cells prokaryotic or unicellular or eukaryotic multicellular Mode of nutrition autotroph or heterotroph Eubacteria bacteria prokaryotic unicellular auto or heterotroph E. coli Archaebacteria archaebacteria prokaryotic unicellular auto or heterotroph deep sea bacteria Protist eukarya eukaryotic multi auto or heterotroph pond organisms Fungi eukarya eukaryotic multi heterotroph mold Plant eukarya eukaryotic multi autotroph tree Animal eukarya eukaryotic multi heterotroph bear Example How does the body's immune system respond to a foreign invader? The immune system is made up of a network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to protect the body. The cells involved are white blood cells, or leukocytes, which come in two basic types that combine to seek out and destroy disease-causing organisms or substances. 1. phagocytes, cells that chew up invading organisms 2. lymphocytes, cells that allow the body to remember and recognize previous invaders and help the body destroy them