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The Rise of Greece communities, and the city-state became the basic unit of Greek government. Each city-state had its own government, including monarchies, oligarchies, and aristocracies. An aristocracy is a government ruled by a small group of noble, land owning families. In this period, huge economic development occurred in Greece and also in her overseas colonies. At its economic height, in the 4th century BC, Ancient Greece was the most advanced economy in the world. In the 8th century BC, Greece began to emerge from the Dark Ages. Literacy had been lost, but the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet, modifying it to create the Greek alphabet. From about the 9th century BC written records begin to appear. The population grew beyond the capacity of its limited farmable land. Starting in about 750 BC the Greeks began 250 years of expansion, settling colonies in all directions. Eventually Greek colonization reached as far north-east as present day Ukraine. To the west the coasts of Illyria, Sicily and southern Italy were settled, followed by the south coast of France, Corsica, and even northeastern Spain. Greek colonies were also founded in Egypt and Libya. Modern Syracuse, Naples, Marseille and Istanbul had their beginnings as the Greek colonies By the 6th century BC the Greek world had become a cultural and linguistic area much larger than the geographical area of present Greece. Greek colonies were not politically controlled by their founding cities, although they often retained religious and commercial links with them. The Greeks both at home and abroad organized themselves into independent Social and Political Conflict The majority of city-states were aristocracies, until the rise of the strong economy. At that point a new class of wealthy merchants began to challenge the land owning nobles for power over the city-states. From 650 BC onwards, the aristocracies had to fight not to be overthrown and replaced by leaders called tyrants. Today we view the word “tyrant” as a negative; however in Greece the word had a very different meaning. A tyrant was a popular leader that was supported by the masses and did not necessarily come from the elite aristocratic class. the surrounding rural areas and smaller towns under their control, and Athens and Corinth had become major maritime and mercantile powers as well. Athens and Sparta developed a rivalry that dominated Greek politics for generations. By the 6th century BC several cities had emerged as dominant in Greek affairs: Athens, Sparta, Corinth, and Thebes. Each of them had brought The Persian Wars In Ionia (the modern Aegean coast of Turkey) the Greek colonies were unable to maintain their independence and came under the rule of the Persian Empire in the mid 6th century BC. Greek city-states, led by Athens, aided these colonies in fighting the Persian Empire. By 478 BC the Greeks were victorious and Athens gained more land and new allies. Athens enrolled all the island states and some mainland allies into an alliance, called the Delian League. The Spartans, although they had taken part in the war, withdrew into isolation after it, allowing Athens to establish unchallenged naval and commercial power. Dominance of Athens The Persian Wars ushered in a century of Athenian dominance of Greek affairs. Athens was the unchallenged master of the sea, and also the leading commercial power. In Athens the monarchy was abolished in 683 BC, and the reforms of Solon established a moderate system of aristocratic government. Eventually this government transitioned into the world’s first democracy. In fact, the word democracy, meaning rule of the people, comes from the Greek word demos, meaning people and kratos meaning power. The wealth of Athens attracted talented people from all over Greece, and also created a wealthy leisure class who became patrons of the arts. The Athenian state also sponsored learning and the arts, particularly architecture. Athens became the centre of Greek literature, philosophy, and the arts. Some of the greatest figures of Western cultural and intellectual history lived in Athens during this period. Ancient Rome One of the most ancient cities in Europe, Rome was founded over 2,700 years ago. Since then, it has been continuously inhabited and has had an immense impact on the world. Many European languages are based on Latin; many political and legal systems follow the ancient Roman model; and buildings all over the world utilize styles and techniques perfected in ancient Rome. The city itself contains layers of buildings spanning over two millennia. According to the historian Livy, Romulus founded Rome in 753 BC. The story of the founding of Rome, a creation myth based upon Roman mythology, follows. Roman Creation Myth: The Story of Romulus and Remus Before their lives began, Romulus and Remus’s grandfather Numitor and his brother Amulius received the throne of Alba Longa upon their father’s death. Numitor received the sovereign powers as his birth right while Amulius received the royal treasury. But because Amulius held the treasury, thus having more power than his brother, he dethroned Numitor as the rightful king. Out of fear that Numitor’s daughter, Rhea, would produce children that would one day overthrow him as king, he forced Rhea to become a Vestal Virgin, priestesses sworn to celibacy. However, one night Mars, the god of war, came to Rhea in the temple of Vesta and she bore him two twin boys of remarkable size and beauty, later named Romulus and Remus. Amulius was enraged and had Rhea placed in prison and ordered the death of the twins by exposure. However, the servant ordered to kill the twins could not. He placed the two in a cradle and laid the cradle on the banks of the Tiber River and went away. The river, which was in flood, rose and gently carried the cradle and the twins downstream. Romulus and Remus were rescued by the river god Tiberinus and placed the twins upon the Palatine Hill. There, they were nursed by a she-wolf underneath a fig-tree. Romulus and Remus were then discovered by a shepherd, who brought the children to his home. The shepherd and his wife raised the boys as their own. As they grew, their noble birth showed itself in their size and beauty while they were still children. When they grew up they were manly and high-spirited, of invincible courage and daring. Romulus, however, was thought the wiser and more political of the two, and in his discussions with the neighbors about pasture and hunting, gave them opportunities of noting that his disposition was one which led him to command rather than to obey. On account of these qualities they were beloved by their equals and the poor, but they despised the king's officers and bailiffs as being no braver than themselves, and cared neither for their anger nor their threats. They led the lives and followed the pursuits of nobly born men, not valuing sloth and idleness, but exercise and hunting, defending the land against brigands, capturing plunderers, and avenging those who had suffered wrong. And thus they became famous. Following a series of small battles, where Romulus and Remus served as military leaders, the king died. Romulus and Remus were offered the joint crown. However, the twins refused to be the kings, wanting to establish their own city upon the slopes of the Palatine Hill. on the strategic and easily fortified Aventine Hill. They two agreed to settle their argument by testing their abilities and by the will of the gods. Each took a seat on the ground apart from one another, and Remus saw six vultures, while Romulus saw twelve. When Remus was enraged by Romulus’s victory, and as Romulus began digging a trench where his city's wall was to run on April 21, 753 BC, he ridiculed some parts of the work, and obstructed others. At last, Remus leaped across the trench, an omen of bad luck, since this implied that his city was easily breached, Romulus slew him that instant. Once the fighting subsided, Romulus buried Remus; then he continued to build his city. He named the city Rome after himself, and served as its first king. Huts of Palatine Hill But once Romulus and Remus arrived at the Palatine Hill, the two argued over where the exact position of the city should be. Romulus was set on building the city upon the Palatine, but Remus wanted to build the city Roman Republic In 509 B.C., a group of Roman aristocrats overthrew a very harsh king. They set up a new government called a republic. A republic is a form of government in which the power rests with citizens who have the right to elect the leaders who make the governmental decisions. It is in indirect democracy, in contrast to a direct democracy in which all citizens participate directly in the government. In Rome, as in Greece, citizenship with voting rights, were granted only to free-born males. In the early republic two groups struggled for power. The patricians were aristocratic landowners who held most of the power. The plebeians were common farm owners, artisans, and merchants. The patricians inherited their power and social status. They claimed that their ancestry gave them the authority to make laws for Rome and its people. The plebeians were citizens of Rome with the right to vote, but they were barred by law from holding most important government positions. In time, plebeian pressure on the patricians gained them political power. Romulus was the first of seven kings. During this time period Athens and Rome were battling for control of the Italian peninsula. Ancient Athens was beginning to fall apart and eventually the Romans were the victors. Israel Much of what we know about the early history of the Hebrews, later called the Jews, is contained in the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, the Torah. In the Torah, God chose Abraham to be the “father” or ancestor, of the Hebrew people. God commanded Abraham to move his people to Canaan, an area on the east coast of the Mediterranean Sea (modern day Israel). This occurred around 1800 B.C. In 1000 B.C., David, the Jewish King, established Jerusalem as his capital. His son, Solomon, built a temple in the city for the faithful to worship and make sacrifices. This is now referred to as the First Temple. In 1947 Israel became an independent country. Hebrew Rule Other groups around the Hebrews were polytheists, people who believe in more than one God. The Hebrews, however, were monotheists. They believed in one God. This God was perfect, all-knowing, all powerful, and eternal. Earlier, people had generally thought that what the gods wanted from human beings was the performance of rituals and sacrifices in their honor. The Hebrews believed that it was God’s wish for people to live moral lives. The religion of the Hebrews was called Judaism. Jewish Law Like the Greeks, Romans, and other ancient peoples, the Jews had a written code of laws. The Bible states that God gave this code to their leader Moses in the form of the Ten Commandments and other laws. This event occurred sometime between 1300 and 1200 B.C. Unlike the laws of other peoples, the Hebrews’ code focused more on morality and ethics and less on politics. The code included rules of social and religious behavior, to which even the rulers were subject. The Ten Commandments A Brief History Four centuries after the building of the First Temple, the Jews were conquered and forced into exile in Babylon; their temple was left in ruins. They were allowed to return in 538 B.C. and build a second temple. But the Holy Land remained under non-Jewish rule and eventually fell into the orbit of the Roman Empire. After a series of Jewish rebellions, the Romans again destroyed the Jewish temple in 70 A.D. and forced the Jews into exile. Throughout history many different civilizations have conquered and ruled over the Land of Israel. The land of Israel would fall under Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, Greek, Roman, Sassanian, Byzantine, Roman, and Ottoman rule. During nearly two thousand years of exile, persecution, and genocide, the land of Israel remained the desired homeland of the Jews. 1. I am the Lord your God … You shall have no other gods besides me 2. You shall not make for yourself a sculptured image… 3. You shall not swear falsely by the name of the Lord your God. 4. Remember Sabbath day and keep it holy. 5. Honor your father and your mother… 6. You shall not murder. 7. You shall not commit adultery. 8. You shall not steal. 9. You shall not bear false witness against your neighbor. 10. You shall not covet … anything that is your Spread of Christianity beliefs of Judaism and Christianity. Eventually, in 380 AD, Christianity became the officially religion of the Roman Empire. For the next three centuries the Holy Land was subject to Christian rule, but in the 7th century, shortly after the death of Mohammed – who established Islam and whom Muslims believe was a prophet of Allah, their name for God – Muslims conquered Jerusalem. Muslim Rule Except for short period in the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries when Crusaders from Europe conquered parts of the Holy Land, Muslim forces held power in the area until the Turkish Ottoman Empire disintegrated after World War I. As Rome expanded, its power spread throughout the Mediterranean. It took control of Judea (Israel) around 63 B.C. By 6 B.C., the Romans ruled Judea directly as part of their empire. It was during the Roman occupation of Palestine that Jesus was born to Jewish parents in Bethlehem and raised in Nazareth. According to the New Testament, Jesus of Nazareth was born between 6 to 4 B.C. He was both a Jew and a Roman subject. He began his public ministry at the age of 30. His preaching contained many ideas from Jewish traditions. About A.D. 29, Jesus visited Jerusalem. Because some referred to him as the “king of the Jews,” the Roman governor considered him a political threat. Jesus was put to death by crucifixion. Christians believe he was resurrected from the dead three days later, and tradition holds that the tomb was located where the Church of the Holy Sepulcher is today (in Jerusalem). Jesus’ followers believed he is the Son of God, the Messiah whose coming was prophesized in Jewish scripture. Jesus came to be referred to as Jesus Christ. Christos is a Greek word meaning “messiah” or “savior.” The word Christianity, the name of the religion founded by Jesus, was derived from the name Christ. In the first century after Jesus’ death, his followers began to teach this new religion based on his message. Christianity slowly spread across the Roman Empire. In the beginning the Roman Empire was hostile to the Muslims, though last on the scene, exercised hegemony in the Holy Land for more than 14 centuries. They too claim an inheritance through the patriarch Abraham, though through a different lineage. Thus Jerusalem holds a particular religious significance for Muslims. Muslim tradition holds that in 622 AD, ten years before his death, Mohammed took a journey from Mecca to Jerusalem, where he then ascended to heaven to converse directly with Allah – an event called the Miraj. Mohammed then returned to earth to impart heavenly knowledge to his followers. Muslims erected the Dome of the Rock, a shrine built upon the Temple Mount in Jerusalem to mark where this event is said to have happened. It is considered the third holiest site in Islam. At the base of the Temple Mount is the Western Wall, the last remnant of the Jews’ Second Temple (the holiest site in Judaism), and less than a mile away is the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, a holy location for Christians. Medieval England The time period following the Middle Ages, is referred to as the Medieval age. During the Middle Ages, England had been conquered by a few different European groups. In 1066, a French man named William invaded and conquered England. He claimed the English throne and began the process of the democratization of England. One of William’s descendants was Henry II. He is credited with making dramatic changes to England’s government, truly moving England away from the feudal system of the Middle Ages. Henry had two major successes, the development of the Jury System and the Henry II creation of Common Law. Under the system of feudalism, when a person was accused of a crime they were tried in unfair courts, and would usually have to survive a duel or some physically painful or dangerous ordeal to be set free. Henry created a system of royal judges that would travel around the country and would oversee trials. The royal judge would interview 12 neighbors (jurors) of the accused about the crime. Using this information the judge would determine the guilt or innocence of the accused. King John Over time the decisions of these judges Following Henry’s death, were used to create “common law.” there were a series of Common law applied to the entire rather unimportant kings. kingdom, and was based on the decisions However, in the 13th of these royal judges over time, not the century, King John came will of the existing monarch. to power. King John decided to fight a war against France. England lost this war, and as a result, England lost land and money. King John tried to raise taxes to pay for the war, which angered British nobles. Eventually the nobles rebelled and forced John to sign the Magna Carta. Magna Carta The Magna Carta, or Great Charter, was a contract between the King and nobles of England guaranteeing and protecting individual rights and liberties. The Magna Carta implied that the king must rule according to law. The Magna Carta had 63 clauses, many of which have come to provide the foundation for modern democracy. Excerpts From the Magna Carta: Clause 12: “No tax or aid shall be imposed in our kingdom, unless by common counsel of our kingdom…” Clause 20: “A free man shall not be fined for a trivial offense; and for a serious offense he shall be fined according to its gravity, saving his livelihood…” Clause 38: “…no bailiff shall put anyone on trial…without bringing credible witnesses to the charge” Clause 39: “No freeman shall be arrested or imprisoned … except by the lawful judgment of his peers…” Model Parliament In 1295, King John’s grandson, Edward I was king. He needed to pay for a war against France, so rather than repeat the mistakes of his grandfather, he decided to get permission from the people of England. Edward called together the lords, and other leading citizens to determine the course of action. Edward stated “What affects all, by all should be approved.” For centuries kings had consulted nobles, but this was the first time that other members of British society also participated. Historians refer to this gathering as the Model Parliament. Setting the precedent for the establishment of an advisement board for the king. For the next few centuries Parliament’s power continued to expand, where Parliament was viewed as a partner with the monarch in governing the nation. Parliament voted on taxes, passed laws, and advised on royal policies. France Renaissance During the late Middle Ages, Europe suffered from both war and plague. Those who survived wanted to celebrate life and the human spirit. They began to question the institutions of the Middle Ages, which had been unable to prevent war or to relieve suffering brought by the plague. In northern Italy, writers and artists began to express this new spirit and to experiment with different styles. These men and women would greatly change how Europeans saw themselves and their world. This movement that started in Italy (and eventually spread to the rest of Europe) caused an explosion of creativity in art, writing, and thought that lasted approximately from 1300 – 1600. Historians call this period the Renaissance. The term means rebirth, and in this context it refers to a revival of art and learning. The educated men and women of the Renaissance hoped to bring back to life the culture of classical Greece and Rome. Renaissance scholars looked down on the art and literature of the Middle Ages. Instead, they wanted to return to the learning of the Greeks and Romans. They achieved this by studying ancient Latin and Greek manuscripts. By studying these manuscripts, they became more influenced by classical ideas. Yet in striving to revive the past, the people of the Renaissance created something new as well. The contributions made during this period led to innovative styles of art and literature. They also led to new values, such as importance of the individual. The study of classical texts led to humanism, an intellectual movement that focused on human potential and achievements. Humanists urged citizens to participate in public life, much as Roman philosophers had more than a thousand years earlier. Such participation was necessary, they argued, to prevent tyranny. Humanists emphasized virtue and knowledge just as the ancient philosophers had, but now they often used Christian and Jewish moral and ethical principles as the basic of virtuous behavior. The philosophers of Ancient Greece had established the idea of natural laws that could be discovered by careful observation and reasoned inquiry. Judaism and Christianity contributed the belief in the equality of all human beings. During the Renaissance these ideas were revitalized. Spread of New Ideas… Historians credit the invention of the printing press in 1440 for helping spread new ideas. The printing press, created by Johann Gutenberg, allowed for the production of books quickly and cheaply. The cheap production of books created a more educated European society. Democratic ideas began to spread more quickly as books became more readily available. For example, books began to be published regarding legal proceedings that helped make laws more clear so that people were more likely to understand their rights. The humanist ideals continued to influence political philosophers during the Enlightenment. The Renaissance beliefs on the role of the individual played a key role in the gradual rise of democratic ideas which were further developed during the era of the Enlightenment. Enlightenment During the 1600s and 1700s, an intellectual movement called the Enlightenment, or Age of Reason, developed. The Enlightenment emerged from the era of the Renaissance, as well as the Scientific Revolution. The Renaissance inspired a spirit of curiosity into many fields, including the physical or natural world. As scholars began to study the world around them, they began to replace old assumptions with new theories. This era of scientific discovery, where new ideas were formed by using careful observation and logic is called the Scientific Revolution. Following the Scientific Revolution, and Renaissance, scholars and philopshers began to reevaluate old notions about other aspects of society. These thinkers built upon a long history of Western thought to develop their ideas. They sought new insight into the underlying beliefs regarding government, religion, economics, and education. were predominantly writers, journalists, and teachers and were confident that human society could be improved through rational thought. While France was the center of the Enlightenment, Enlightenment thinkers were from all over Europe. Most Famous Enlightenment Thinkers: John Locke (England) Salons Salons were discussion groups organized by women during the Enlightenment. Philsophes would gather in the “salon” of someone’s home, and enjoy food, drink, and various discussions about the world around them. The Enlightenment reached its height in France in the mid-1700s. Paris became the meeting place for people who wanted to discuss politics and ideas. The social critics of this period in France were called Philosophes, the French word for philosophers. The philosophes believed that people could apply reason to all aspects of life. These nontraditional thinkers championed personal liberties and the work of Locke and Newton, denounced Christianity, and actively opposed the abusive governments found throughout Europe at the time. As varied as they were, the leading French philosophes generally came from similar schools of thought. They Baron de Montesquieu (France) Jean Jacques Rousseau (France)