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Earth Science Latitude: Parallels, run east to west, equator = 0 degrees. Measured in degrees north or south of the equator. You can determine your latitude by finding the altitude of polaris. Longitude: Run North to south, intersect the poles, measured in degrees east or west of the prime meridian. AM= ante meridian, PM = post meridian. Great Circle: Shortest distance between two points on the globe is along great circles. Minerals Earth's Crust: 8 elements make up 98.5% Visual Characteristics: Streak, Cleavage, Fracture, Hardness. Specific Density: Density relative to water. Rocks Igneaous: Rock that has been melted and allowed to cool. Extrusive Rock: If the magma reaches the surface and cools. Cools quickly-> Small crystals. Intrusive Rock: Magma does not reach surface. Cools slowly-> large crystals. Felsic: Aluminum base Mafic: Iron or Magnesium base. Sedimentary Rocks: Rocks on the surface of the earth that have been weathered and eroded. Usually have similar size grains, layering, fossils. Often form Geodes. Geode: Rock with cavity filled with quartz or calcite. Metamorphic: Existing rocks that undergo large amount of pressure or heat. They do not reach their melting point, but the crystals rearrange. Shale-> slate, Limestone->marble Foliated: Layered mineral crystals. Non-foliated means no layering Rock Cycle: Rocks can cycle between all different types. Weathering: Breakdown from exposure to atmosphere Physical: Frost action: water freezes and cracks rocks Plant action: plants grow in rocks, cracking them Exfoliation: peels off top layer of rock Pressure Unloading: as top layer is removed, pressure decreases causing expansion Chemical Oxidation: Rusting of Iron CO2: water dissolves calcite forming carbonic acid. Acid Rain Lichens Soil: Made from weathered rocks and decay of plants/animals. Topsoil: top layer, most nutrients Subsoil: Partiallly weathered bedrock Bedrock: solid rock, bottom layer. Windbreak: Surrounding a field with trees so that soil is not lost from wind. Rivers Discharge: Amount of water passing- flux Velocity of a stream: Flows fastest in the center of the stream, just below the surface. Life of a stream: Youth: Flows steep, straight path. Mature: Less steep and starts to meander due to erosion Old age: Not very steep, lots of bends due to erosion Glaciers Glaciers: Once covered a third of the earth during the glacial period 10,000 years ago, now cover 10%. Carved many features such as long island, the finger lakes, the great lakes. Valley Glacier: In mountain region, flows down hill into valleys, mostly in north america. Continental Glacier: Large area covered by a thick sheet of ice. Found in Greenland and antarctica. Formation: Snow piles up, which increases pressure. Movement: Advancing- moving down hill; Recessing/Retreating- Melting faster than forming. Erosion By Glaciers: Causes abrasion between rocks and glaciers and frost action. Waves Fetch: length of open water abailable. Frequency of waves depends on fetch. Tsunamis: Formed from an underwater earthquake. Not a tidal wave, has nothing to do with tides. Currents Undertow: Water returning from shore 'backwash' can be dangerous. Longshore Current: Runs parallel to coast. Rip Current: Runs perpindicular to coast, usually 50-100 ft wide. Swin parallel to current to get out of it, not against it. Erosion by Waves: Abrasion with sea cliffs, caves arches etc. Deposition: Rate depends on size, shape and density of particles. Running water: Sorts particles Glaciers: does not sort the particles Wind sorts particles Landscape: Relief: Elevation difference between lowest and highest point. Mountains: have greatest relief. Plateaus: Moderate relief, rolling hills. Plains: Least relief. Water Water: 97% salt water, only .6% is drinkable. Water Budget: Precipitation and evaporation of an area. Deficit: more evap than precip, usually occurs in august. Recharge: takes levels back to normal, usually occurs in fall. Surplus: more precip than evap, usually occurs in springtime. Inflitration: Precipitation sinks into ground, depends on permeability of ground. Capillary water: stuck to particles so it can move against gravity. Earth Layers Lithosphere: top layer, 12 major plates. Crust: 10-65 km thick Mantle: 2900km thick Outer Core: 2250km thick, made of liquid iron and nickel Inner Core: Made of solid iron and nickel. Plate Boundaries: Diverging: plates moving away from each other Sliding: Friction between the two plates. Concerging: 1. Collisions: crumble upward. 2. Subduction: Continental and oceanic plates collide, oceanic goes under. Hotspots: Weak or thin areas where magma rises up, can form land, such as Hawaii. Pole Reversals: Earth's magnetic poles can switch places. Earthquakes Earthquake Waves: When plates crack, waves are formed. This is seen when breaking a pencil, and each end wavers. P-wave: Primary wave, fastest, is a compressional wave and can travel through solids, liquids or gasses. S-wave: Secondary wave, slower but does more damage. Is a shear wave, moves perpindicular to the motion and can only travel through solids. L-wave: Longitudinal wave, moves the slowest. Focus: location of the earthquake, underground. Shallow focus = intense damage to concentrated area. Epicenter: Location on surface directily above focus. Richter Scale: logarithmic scale where each number is 32x stronger. Volcanoes Active: Erupted in recorded history. About 500 active volcanoes. Most located near plate boundaries. Correlation between locations of volcanoes and earthquakes is high. Magma: rises to the surface and melts rock in its path. Lava: Magma that has reached the surfaces and undergone chemical changes due to the air. Rift Eruption: Alond a narrow crack in the crust. ExplosiveEruption: Occur at convergent, subduction boundaries. Thicker magma and steep cones. Hot Springs: Magma heats ground water. Mountains Mountains: Can result from plate collisions. Active continental margin: Area where plates are moving, creating mountains. Passive continental margin: Region of water where sediments are deposited creating mountains. Plate Collisions and mountains: Continental-Oceanic: mtn range along coast, often volcanic. Continental-Continental: Creates folded mtns- himilays, alps. Still Growing. Direct correlation between plate boundaries and mountain formation. Fault: Break or crack in rock. Normal- sliding down incline, Reverse- up incline, Stike slip- Horizontal. Energy Transfer Radiation: Waves, sunlight Convection: Transfer by fluids Conduction: Touching Advection: Flow of air- applicable in meteorology. Absorbtion of Energy: Color: Black absorbs better Texture: Rough has more surface area and absorbs better. Reflectivity: Less shiny is better. Good absorbors are also good radiators. Bad absorbers make good insulators. Deposition: When water goes from gas to solid i.e. Snow cloud formation. Sublimation: going from solid to a gas Inolation: Incoming solar radiation Weather Atmosphere: Troposphere: Lowest, known as the weather sphere due to water vapor in the air Tropophase Stratosphere Stratophase Mesosphere Mesopause Thermosphere: Uppermost level Ionosphere: later where an abundance of ions accumulate due to UV radiation Specific humidity: How much water is in the air Relative Humidity: amount of water in air divided by amount of water the air can hold. Amount of water air can hold doubles with every 11 degree C increase. Dew point: Temperature at which water vapor condenses to a liquid. If it is less than 0 it is the frost point. Clouds Formation: air cools as it rises away from surface of earth causing vapor to condense. Cirrus: Highest clouds, made of ice crystals. Stratus: Layered sheetlike clouds at a lower altitude Cumulus: puffy Precipitation: Air must cool down and condensation nuclei(dust, nitrate, sulfate) must be present. Wind Anemometer: Measures wind speed. Wind: differences in pressure caused by heating and cooling (hot air has lower pressure) cause air to move Global Circulation: caused be unequal heating and cooling and the coriolas effect. Seabreeze: Land heats faster than water Landbreeze: Land cools faster than water. Jet Stream: at the top of the troposphere, air is moving 300-500km/hr 0, 60 degrees latitude: low pressure= air rising and rainy. 30, 90 degrees latitude: High pressure = air sinking and drier air. Air Mass: area of air in the lower part of the troposphere Front: when 2 air masses meet Stationary Front: Cold and warm fronts meet and dont combint. Cold air goes south, hot air goes north, coriolas effect causes then to spin. Lightning: Water droplets are pulled apart forming = and – ions, charge is stored until it discharges Tornado: Cold front meets warm front, measured on the fujita scale Hurricane: formed when a cluster of thunderstorms over a warm ocean ear begins to rotate. Measured on the sampson/suffir scale. Blizzard: less than 20 degrees, winds of 35 mph and snow Isotherms: lines of = temp Isobars: Lines of = pressure: Oceans Mariannas trench: Deepest point Salinity: concentration of salts. Mixed Layer: top layer of water Thermocline: line between top and deep where a rapid temperature change occurs. Deep water zone: Rotation: Water rotates clockwise in northern hemisphere and CCW in southern. Continental Shelf: shallow region, slopes down until continental slope, steep drop. Sea mounts: underwater mountains, volcanic origin. Climate Factors: latitude, altitude, topography, bodies of water, ocean current. Temperature decreases with altitude 1degree C ever 160 km Inversion: Warm air traps cold air in a valley region which leads to poor air quality. Water has a greater specific heat than all minerals so it heats and cools slowest. El Nino: prevailing winds push warm water to western side of oceans, when winds stop, warm water comes back. La Nina is the opposite. The Universe Milky Way: spiral galaxy- bands of stars revlove around central point. Has about 200 billion stars Galaxies: Sprial, elliptical, irregular. Electromagnetic Spectrum: in order of increasing wavelength: Gamma rays, x-rays, UV rays, Visible Light, IR, Microwaves, Radio Waves. Doppler Shifts: Blue Shift: blue = 400nm. When source is coming toward you, causes shift toward blue Red Shift: Red = 700nm. When souce is moving away. Astronomical Unit:1.5 x 10^8 km Apparent Magnitude: Brightness on Earth. Absolute Magnitude: Brightness from 32.6 lightyears away. Luminosity: Actual brightness. Size of stars: White dwarf> Red giant> Super Giant Nebula: Collection of clouds of gas. A nebula contracts and starts to burn forms a star. Supernova: A star that has collapsed. White Dwarf: A star that collapses on itself. Photosphere: Outer, yellow colored layer. Chromosphere: Reddish outer layer. Corona: Outer Edge Solar Prominences: extend out from corona. Sun Spots: Cooler areas of sun, still very hot. Auroras: Charged particles from sun interacts with earths electric and magnetic fields. Planets Retrograde Motion: when planet appears to move west because it has a different orbit. (2 athletes running on track in different lanes.) Terrestrial planets: Mercury, Venus Earth Mars, have rocky surfaces. Jovian Planets: Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto. Rocky Core, liquid mantle. Moon: Rotates about its own axis at the same rate as it orbits around the earth.-> darkside. It's orbit is at a 5 degree angle to the earth's orbit. Perigee: Closest point to earth of the moon's orbit. Apogee: Furthest point in the moon's orbit. Spring Tides: Sun earth and moon in line cause greatest effect. Neap Tides: When sun earth and moon are perpindicular to each other causing smallest effect. Eclipses: Umbra: darkest spot of shadow, Penumbra: Gray area surrounding umbra. Lunar Eclipse: The moon passes through earths shadow, Partial- in penumbra, total- in umbra. Solar Eclipse: Moon passes between sun and earth and lunar shadow reaches earth. Asteroid Belt: Band of rocks that orbits the sun. Meteoroid: piece of rock orbiting in the solar system. Meteor: Meteoroid that has entered the earth's atmosphere. Meteorites: Meteors that have reached the ground. Altitude: Angle above the horizon. Azimuth: Direction you have to face. Zenith: The point directly above. The earth rotates CCW and its axis always points in the same direction. Perihelion: Closest point in the elliptical orbit. For Earth it occurs on January 1st. Aphelion: Furthest point in elliptical orbit, for Earth it occurs July 1st. Foucalt Pendulum: Giant pendulum which stays in the same plane when observed from space but appears to change planes on earth. Parallax: Apparent position of stars changes as earth moves. Kepler: First Law: Planets move in elliptical orbits with the sun at one of the focal points. Second Law: Planets sweep constant area/time during elliptical orbit. Speed increases when it is closer to the sun. Third Law: P^2=D^3 P=period(Years) D=distance from sun(AU)