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Geology Study Guide: Chapters 3-10
Students should know that:
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The Earth consists of three distinct physical layers (core, mantle, crust) with each layer
broken into sub layers. (Pages 190 -195)
2.
The crust is the thinnest and least dense layer of Earth. It consists of basaltic oceanic
crust and granitic continental crust. Oceanic crust is denser.
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The mantle is thicker and denser than the crust. It consists of the lithosphere,
asthenosphere, and mesosphere. The mantle is where convection currents occur in order
to move heat throughout the layers of Earth.
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The core is made up of two parts: the solid, inner core and the liquid, outer core. The
inner core is the most dense and hottest layer of Earth. It is a solid because pressure
from all the other layers of Earth on top of it pressing down on the material in the inner
core. The core consists of iron which is responsible for the magnetism of the Earth and
a little bit of nickel.
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Density is the amount of mass per unit volume. Less dense objects rise above more
dense objects.
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The layers of Earth are classified according to temperature, density and composition.
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Rocks are composed of one or more minerals. (Pages 66 – 79)
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Minerals are naturally-occurring, crystalline inorganic solids.
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Minerals’ properties are determined by their component elements.
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Elements are organized by properties on the Periodic Table.
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Silicate minerals contain the elements silicon and oxygen in their chemical make up and
non-silicate minerals do not contain silicon and oxygen.
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Rocks are classified by their process of formation (Igneous, Metamorphic, and
Sedimentary).
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Rock and minerals are differentiated by properties such as fracture, cleavage, streak,
luster, specific gravity, hardness, and crystal shape.
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Luster is the way that a mineral or rock reflects light and can be metallic, submetallic,
or nonmetallic.
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Streak is the color of the powdered form of a mineral and cleavage is how some minerals
can break into smooth, flat surfaces. Fracture is how some minerals break unevenly
along curved surfaces.
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Some minerals and rocks can be determined by their hardness. Moh’s Scale of Hardness
measures the ability of a mineral to be scratched. Talc is the softest mineral on this
scale and Diamond is the hardest mineral.
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Minerals that are found in large proportions and that are pure enough can be mined for
profit. This is called Ore.
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Surface mining is mining of minerals of the surface of Earth, like open-pit mining.
Subsurface mining are when minerals are deposited too deep in the Earth to be surface
mined.
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Reclamation is when an area of land is mined and then returned back to its original state
or better.
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Minerals are used for many different things, such as for batteries, cans, glass, and
coins. Gemstones are rare and beautiful and used mainly in jewelry.
All rocks experience change through the Rock cycle: weathering, erosion, cementation,
recrystallization, melting, and metamorphism. (Page 90 – 111)
Weathering is the process of breaking down rock into smaller pieces called sediment by
water, wind, ice or heat. Erosion is the process by which wind, water, ice or gravity will
transport soil and sediment from one place to another. Deposition is where the soil or
sediment is laid down.
Mechanical weathering is the breakdown of rock into smaller pieces by physical means,
like ice wedging, abrasion (grinding of rock), wind, water, plants, animals or gravity.
Chemical weathering is the break down of rock by chemical reactions and occur by
water, acid precipitation, acids in groundwater, acids in living things (like lichens and
moss), or air mixing with iron to create rust (oxidation).
A rock or material will weather faster when the climate is warm and humid. An object
with more surface area will weather faster than an object with smaller surface area.
Mountaintops weather faster because there is more exposure to rain, wind, and ice at
the top of a mountain.
Differential weathering is when softer, less weather resistant rocks wear down faster
than harder, more weather resistant rocks.
An igneous rock or metamorphic rock will transform into sedimentary rock by being
weathered into sediment, eroded and deposited, and then compacted and cemented to
form thick layers of rock which form sedimentary rock.
Sedimentary rock will transform into metamorphic rock by undergoing change when the
rock is forced downward into Earth and experiences great heat and pressure.
Metamorphic rock can also form from the pressure when two plates collide.
Metamorphic rock will transform into igneous rock when the rock melts to form magma
and then is cooled and crystallized by either being trapped somewhere in Earth’s crust
(intrusive igneous rock-slow cooling-large crystals) or by cooling and crystallizing on
Earth’s surface when magma moves out from a volcano (extrusive igneous rock-fast
cooling-small crystals).
A rock or minerals composition is what makes up the rock or mineral. Texture is the
quality of the rock based on the size, shape, and position of the rock’s grains.
Light colored igneous rocks, like felsic rocks, are less dense than dark-colored igneous
rock, like mafic. Course-grained igneous rocks include granite and gabbro. Fine-grained
igneous rock includes Rhyolite and Basalt.
The different types of sedimentary rock include clastic sedimentary rock (when rock or
mineral fragments are cemented together), chemical sedimentary rock (when minerals
crystallize out of a solution to become rock), and organic sedimentary rock (forms from
the remains of once-lived plants and animals).
Examples of sedimentary rock include coarse grained Conglomerate and Sandstone, and
fine-grained Siltstone and Shale.
Stratification is the process in which sedimentary rocks are arranged in layers.
Two types of metamorphic rock are foliated (mineral grains are arranged in bands in the
rock) and nonfoliated (mineral grains are not arranged in bands in the rock).
Earth’s surface is composed of different Lithospheric plates. (Pages 194 – 213)
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Heat from the Earth’s core rises through the mantle, creating convection currents that
cause the plates to move.
Movement of Lithospheric plates causes major geological events on the surface (i.e.
earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain formation, tsunamis etc.)
Continental Drift and Sea Floor Spreading led to the current Theory of Plate Tectonics.
Continental drift is the theory that all the continents once formed a single landmass
called Pangaea. This theory is supported by fossils, landmass (like mountains), and
climatic conditions that matched one continent to another.
Seafloor spreading occurs at a chain of underground mountains, called Mid-Ocean Ridges
and is where new oceanic crust forms from magma rising out of the cracks on the
seafloor and hardening. This pushes two plates further away from each other.
Three different plate boundaries include convergent boundary (the collision of 2 plates),
divergent boundary (the plates move away from each other), and transform boundary
(the plates slide past each other).
Compression is the type of stress when an object is squeezed, like when two plates
collide. Tension is the type of stress when forces stretch an object, like during an
earthquake.
The bending of rock layers because of stress is called folding. The types of folds are
anticline, syncline, and monocline.
The surface along which rocks break and slide past each other is called a fault. A fault
has a hanging wall and a footwall. The different types of faults are normal, reverse, and
strike-slip faults.
Constructive forces within the Earth’s crust create major geological features.
Destructive forces wear down Earths surface features.
Mountains are classified by the means by which they are created: folding, faulting, up
warping, and igneous activities.
Some plains are formed by the erosion of plateaus and mountains.
Hot spot volcanoes occur in areas that are not plate boundaries.
Volcanic eruptions contribute to the building up of land.
The three different types of volcanoes are a shield volcano, with gently sloping sides, a
cinder-cone volcano, that are small and usually in clusters, and composite volcanoes, that
have steep sides and are large, explosive volcanoes.
The plate boundaries surrounding the Pacific Ocean where many earthquakes and
volcanoes exist is called the Ring of Fire.
Earthquakes occur at transform boundaries/strike-slip faults and go through elastic
rebound, when a rock is elastically deformed and then snapped back to its original shape.
Earthquakes consist of seismic waves called P waves, which can travel through the
center of Earth, and S waves, that cannot travel through liquids. Surface waves occur
along the surface of Earth and are the most destructive.
An epicenter is the point on the Earth’s surface directly above the starting point and a
focus is the point inside the Earth where the Earthquake begins.
The Richter scale measures the magnitude, or strength, or an earthquake and the
Mercalli scale measures the intensity, or how much damage, the earthquake created.
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Most fossils are formed as dead organisms buried in layers of sedimentary rock. Fossils
can also be found in amber or asphalt. Trace fossils provide evidence of animal activity
and include footprints or burrows.
Index fossils are remains of species that existed on Earth for a short period that were
abundant and widespread geographically.
The division of Earth’s history is the Geological Time Scale- from most recent to oldest
time periods: Cenozoic (Age of Mammals), Mesozoic (Age of Reptiles), Paleozoic (Age of
Marine Life), Proterozoic Eon (where first organism appeared), Archean Eon (where
first rock appeared), and Hadean Eon.(Pages 152-177)
Superposition is the layering of rocks from oldest at the bottom to youngest at the top.
Unconformities are inconsistencies in superposition that occur when rock is eroded and
new sediment is deposited into the eroded surface.
Types of unconformities include disconformities; where part of a sequence or parallel
layer is missing, nonconformities; where sedimentary layers lie on top of an eroded
surface of rock, and angular unconformities, that exists between horizontal rock layers
and rock layers that are tilted or folded.
Fossils are used to find the past climate of a region and help to explain past events.
Soil is composed of layers of weathered rocks and organic materials. (Pages 288-297)
Soil horizons are the different layers of soil. Horizon A is the layer of topsoil and
contains the most decomposed matter (humus). Horizon B is the middle layer where
leaching occurs. Leaching is when water dissolves and carries nutrients through the soil.
Horizon C is made up of partially weathered away pieces of rock and underneath this
horizon is the unweathered, hard layer of bedrock.
Five different factors effect soil formation: climate, types of rock, types of vegetation,
and amount of time rock has been weathered.
Soil differs in color, depth, texture, and fertility.
People change the environment by moving soil, mining, altering vegetation, adding
chemicals, and removing minerals.
Soil conservation is trying to maintain the fertility (or nutrients) in the soil by
protecting it.
Contour plowing is when a farmer plows across the slope of a hill to prevent erosion from
rain. Terracing changes one steep hill into a series of small hills. No-till farming is when
a farmer will leave old stocks on the ground to cover it from rain runoff. Cover crop is
when farmers plant peanuts or soybeans to restore nutrients to the soil for other crops
to grow. Crop rotation is changing out the different crops that are grown throughout
the year in order to save nutrients in the soil.
Trillions of kilograms of soil are lost each year due to farming.
Erosion of topsoil also occurs from construction of homes and roads.
Non-renewable energy sources used by humans include coal, oil, gasoline, natural gas, and
nuclear energy. (Pages 122 – 144)
Natural resources are the natural materials used by humans.
To conserve natural resources, we should use the 3 R’s: Recycle, Reuse, and Reduce.
Examples of ways to conserve natural resources are to turn off faucets when not using
them, turn off lights when not using them, and using fewer trips in the car.
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Renewable energy sources used and available to humans include biomass, hydroelectric,
solar, wind, geothermal, and fuel cells.
Non-renewable energy relies on materials that can be used up.
Renewable energy relies on existing flow of energy or on-going natural processes.
Inexhaustible energy resources are ones which are constant and will run out in the
foreseeable future (wind, hydroelectric, solar, geothermal).
Exhaustible energy can conceivably be used up. (Fossil fuels, biomass, Nuclear).
Explain the following for extra credit:
1. Compare and contrast the layers of earth including density, composition, and temperature.
2. Describe how the Earth’s crust is divided into plates and what geological features can be
created from the movement of convergent, divergent, and transform boundaries.
3. Explain the process of seafloor spreading and which plate boundary it occurs at.
4. Identify volcanic islands that were once created by hot spots
5. Differentiate between the different types of mountain formations.
6. Describe the different types of fossils and explain where fossils can be found. List an
important fact about each era from the Geological Time Scale.
7. Explain and draw a diagram of how one rock can be changed into another rock throughout
the rock cycle. Mention how an igneous rock can transform into a sedimentary rock, and so
forth.
8. Describe how soil forms.
9. Explain why strip mining is detrimental to the Earth.
10. Explain the different techniques farmers use to conserve and protect the soil.
11. Compare and contrast renewable and nonrenewable resources.
12. Explain what humans can do in order to conserve energy resources.
Meteorology Study Guide:
Chapter 15, 16, and 17
Students should know that:
1. The Earth’s surface is heated by energy from the sun.
2. Land and water absorb and release heat at different rates. Land is faster!
3. Convection currents, circular patterns of moving fluids are caused by the unequal heating of
land and water.
4. Ocean and land breezes result from convection currents along the shorelines of landmasses.
5. Weather patterns results from the unequal rates of heating and cooling between masses of
water and land.
6. Clouds develop when warm surface air rises to cooler parts of the atmosphere and water
vapor condenses into droplets.
7. Air mass, pressure systems and fronts cause weather to change.
8. Global winds are created by a combination of unequal heating of large land and water masses
and the direction is determined by Earth’s rotation upon its axis (like the Coriolis Effect)
9. Winds blow from the center of high pressure areas toward low pressure ones.
10. The greater the pressure difference, the stronger the wind and the more severe the
weather event (like thunderstorms and blizzards)
11. Differences in wind speed and direction at varying elevations create wind shear, resulting in
tornadoes.
12. The Fujita Scale is used to measure the intensity of tornadoes.
13. Rising air currents transport water vapor and heat up into the atmosphere.
14. As warm, moist air rises and cools, it condenses to form clouds and falls as precipitation.
15. Large areas of extreme low pressure in tropical regions develop in the summer and fall
months.
16. Hurricanes, cyclones, and typhoons are storms that are named differently according to
where they form.
17. The Coriolis Effect, caused by the rotation of the Earth upon its axis, cause winds around
tropical depressions to begin rotation (counterclockwise=northern hemisphere,
clockwise=southern), creating a tropical storm/hurricane.
18. Seasonal Change is caused by an unequal distribution of the Sun’s direct rays as a result of
the Earth’s tilt and revolution.
19. The seasons of Earth’s northern hemisphere and southern hemisphere are opposite (when it
is winter in the northern hemisphere, it is summer in the southern hemisphere).
20. The Earth is currently tilted at 23.5 degrees.
21. A solstice is the moment in which the sun is at its highest or lowest altitude above the
horizon.
22. The equinox is when the sun is directly over the equator, and day and night are of equal
length.
23. As latitude increases, light is more indirect and solar radiation n\is spread over a larger
area. Thus, higher latitudes receive less concentrated solar radiation than latitudes closer
to the tropics. Latitude affects climate do to the amount of sunlight received.
Students should be able to do: (Extra Credit)
1. Draw a model of the seasons in relation to the hemisphere, Earth’s tilt, and the sun (pg 520)
2. Draw pictures and explain the following definitions: evaporation and condensation
3. Explain the difference between a land breeze and sea breeze.
4. Create a map of the global winds and explain in which direction that they blow. (pg 460)
5. Explain why air rises at the equator and sinks at the poles and explain why the doldrums is
an area of low pressure. (pg 459)
6. Compare and contrast how tornadoes, hurricanes, and thunderstorms form.
7. Explain why cyclonic storms rotate counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and
clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
Signatures:
I studied for my Geology and Meteorology Final by reading this study guide, my notes, and the
book and am prepared for to take the test:
Student Signature: _________________________________ Date: __________________
Parent Signature: __________________________________ Date: __________________