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2008 级 英语专业 《英语语法》课程
课
2009 年
秋-春 两个学期
计划
题
English Pronouns and Substitution
教学目的
教学重点
教学难点
时数
授课
4
类型
Help understand usages of English pronouns & substitution
理论
附
记
或
pronoun concord; case; reference; substitution
Usages
说
明
Pronoun concord, number/gender/person; case; anaphoric/cataphoric/
重要语言点
situational references; nominal/verbal/clausal substitutions
I.
III.
IV.
V.
Detailed information about English pronouns and their usages in
substitution.
教
学
Part One: Pronouns and their usages (45 minutes)
Pronouns are varied closed-class words with nominal function. English has a
developed pronoun system, comprising personal pronouns, possessive pronouns,
过 reflexive pronouns, reciprocal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, interrogative
pronouns, relative pronouns, and indefinite pronouns. The present lecture will deal with
the concord of pronouns (and corresponding determiners) with their antecedents in
程 number, gender and person.
1 Pronoun concord in number
Personal pronouns, possessive pronouns, reflexive pronouns, and corresponding
determiners have their singular and plural forms. The number contrast of pronouns
differs from that of nouns in that pronoun number contrast is morphologically unrelated,
as in I / we, he / they, as opposed to the typical regular formation of noun plurals, boy /
boys.
Email box: [email protected] code caozhixi
II.
Presentation through guiding questions (5 minutes): What is a
pronoun? How does it differ from a determiner? What are its
functions?
Practice (40 minutes) through reading and discussing questions
about pronouns and their usages.
Practice (40 minutes) through questions about structures and
meaning differences when pronouns and other words or
expressions are used for substitution.
Summary (5 minutes) through discussions about usages of English
pronouns and substitutive approaches.
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：
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The choice of pronoun number forms is generally determined by the number of
its antecedent, that is to say, a pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number. Here
are a few points that merit our attention.
1) Pronoun concord with every-, some-, any- compounds as antecedent
When the antecedent is a compound such as everyone, everybody, someone,
somebody, anyone, anybody, no one, nobody, the pronoun and the corresponding
determiner usually follow the principle of grammatical concord and take the singular
form. But in informal style, they can follow the principle of notional concord and take
the plural form, especially when the antecedent is everybody or everyone. Note that with
everything, something, anything and nothing, the pronoun and corresponding determiner
can only take the singular form. Compare.
Anybody can attend the meeting if he is interested.
Everybody talked at the top of his voice.
Everyone was clapping their hands.
Anything on the table can be thrown away, can't it?
2) Pronoun concord with coordinate construction as antecedent
When the antecedent is a coordinate construction, the number forms of the
pronoun and corresponding determiner are generally determined by the plural or singular
meaning of the coordination, eg:
My friend and roommate has agreed to lend me his car.
My friend and my roommate have agreed to lend me their cars.
3) Pronoun concord with collective noun as antecedent
When the antecedent is a collective noun, the choice of the number forms of the
pronoun and corresponding determiner depends on the meaning of the collective noun in
the context, eg:
The team has won its first game.
The team are now on the floor taking their practice shots at the basket.
4) Pronoun concord with "plural noun / pronoun + each" as antecedent
When the subject of a sentence is a construction of "plural noun/ pronoun + each",
the choice of the number forms of the pronoun and corresponding determiner depends on
the position of the appositive each: if the appositive occurs before the verb, the following
pronoun and corresponding determiner take the plural form; if, on the other hand, the
appositive appears after the verb, the pronoun
and corresponding determiner take the singular form, eg:
They each had their problems.
They had each h/s own problem.
2 Pronoun concord in gender
GENDER is a grammatical category. It is a set of grammatical forms of nouns,
determiners and adjectives that tell of tile distinctions of sex. Unlike some European
languages such as German, French and Russian that have a complicated gender system,
the English language is not marked with any gender distinctions except for some
pronouns. Therefore, when we follow the traditional description and say that English
nouns have four genders (the masculine, feminine, neuter, and common gender), we do
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not mean any overt grammatical forms that show the distinctions of sex, but the
differences of natural sex denoted by the lexical meaning of nouns.
Some English pronouns, however, have overt grammatical contrasts between
personal and nonpersonal gender, and between masculine and feminine gender. These
gender distinctions are largely restricted to the third person singular of personal,
possessive, and reflexive pronouns and corresponding determiners. In the use of these
pronouns and determiners we must see to it that they agree with their antecedents in
gender.
1) Pronoun concord with male/female noun as antecedent
When the antecedent is a personal male / female noun, the pronoun and
corresponding determiner should be masculine or feminine respectively. For Chinese
students, attention should be paid to certain English names, such as Ally, Barney,
Carmen, Doyle, Emile, Frances, Giles, Gill, Hallis, Holly, Ira, Ina, etc, that often cause
difficulty in deciding whether they are male or female, eg:
Doyle prides himself upon his skill as a pianist.
Amy will be given considerable authority if she accepts the new position.
Benny plans to open his own office in Canada. He went there last week.
Ally is thinking of going abroad. That idea of hers has found favour with
her parents.
Francis said that he had bought the house.
Frances said that she would buy these pearls for her mother.
2) Pronoun concord with common gender noun as antecedent
Some common gender nouns, such as baby, child, customer, doctor, engineer,
infant, lawyer, parent, patient, person, scholar, secretary, scientist, speaker, student,
teacher, etc, are duel in nature. They can either be male or female. When used in the
singular for generic reference, these nouns are generally referred to as he, a kind of
practice that is opposed by feminists. If we do not want to do so, we can use plural forms
instead or avoid using any pronoun or determiner at all, eg.
An instructor should offer his students challenging projects.
Instructors should offer their students challenging projects.
In formal writing as in legal documents, we can use "he or she", "his or her", etc
to refer to a common gender noun. Obviously, too much repetition of these expressions
violates the principle of brevity in writing. Compare:
When a customer calls, ask him or her to leave his or her phone number.
When a customer calls, be sure to ask for a phone number.
Some common gender nouns such as baby, infant, and child may be referred to
either by a personal or by a nonpersonal pronoun. The wide selection of pronouns ( who /
which, he / she / it) should not be understood to mean that all these are possible in all
contexts. When the speaker does not know, or is not interested in, the sex of the baby or
infant, he may use the neutral it; if the speaker is aware of the baby's sex (for instance,
the speaker is the baby's mother), she is unlikely to refer to her baby as it. She will have
to choose between the masculine and the feminine pronoun. Compare:
There's a baby in the pram. Why, it's crying.
Baby is crying in the pram. She must be hungry.
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When a common gender pronoun is used for specific reference, the pronoun or
corresponding determiner must take an appropriate gender form according to the actual
sex indicated in the context, eg:
In her lifetime, Catherine worked day and night without thinking of her personal
comfort. The doctor will forever live in the hearts of her patients.
3) Pronoun concord with neutral gender noun as antecedent
When the antecedent is a singular noun of neutral gender, ie a noun that denotes
an inanimate or nonpersonal object, we generally use the neutral pronoun or determiner
( it / itself / its), e.g.
Have you received my letter. It was posted a month ago.
This machine works by itself.
Just as a baby may be designated it, so a member of a nonhuman species may be
designated he or she. For instance, a ship or a favourite car may be referred to as she or
her. If the owner of the car is a woman, she might refer to her favourite vehicle as he or
him, eg.
The sailors saw a ship in the distance. She was sailing toward the rocky island.
The car needs some petrol. Let's fill him up at the next garage.
When the antecedent is an animal noun, it is generally referred to as it in
nonexpert contexts. If, on the other hand, the animal is spoken of with emotion or is
personified, it may be referred to as he or she. This is also true of the names of celestial
bodies or abstract ideas, eg:
Look at that blackbird. It always comes to my window.
The cat leaped onto my bed and coiled herself there.
The sun was shining in all his splendid beauty.
Names of countries may be treated either as feminine or neutral. When used as
geographical units, they are inanimate and therefore neutral. If used as political /
economic units, the names of countries are often feminine, and are generally referred to
as she or her, eg:
China is in East Asia. It is one of the largest countries in the world.
In the last decade of the 20th century, China began to assume her role as a
world power.
3 Pronoun concord in person
PERSON is a grammatical category. It is a grammatical form that shows the
referential meaning of pronouns. In English, personal, possessive, and reflexive pronouns
and corresponding determiners have three special forms that tell of reference to the
speaker (first person), to the one spoken to (second person), and to the human being or
thing spoken about (third person). These three persons have their singular and plural
forms and case distinctions: the subjective and the objective case. Hence, in the use of
pronouns, we must see to it that they agree with their antecedents in person. By pronoun
concord in person, we mean two things: first, a pronoun must agree with its antecedent in
person on the sentential level; secondly, in a broader context, that is, in texts or
connected discourses, the speaker or writer must keep a consistent person in the use of
pronouns. A story may be told either in the first or in the third person. Whichever person
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is used, it must be consistent from beginning to end.
I) Pronoun concord in person on sentential level
In a sentence or in a sequence of sentences, the person of a pronoun is determined
by the person of its antecedent. Generally speaking, all noun phrases (except those
having first and second person pronouns as heads) are third person for purposes of
concord. If the antecedent is a coordinate construction containing a first or second person
pronoun, the referring pronoun should be first or second person in plural number.
Violation of these rules will result in poor or faulty sentences. Note the following
examples:
Jane and I may move to Oklahoma. We hear that the weather there is
healthful.
You and Lucy can go there by car. You don't have to walk along with us.
Tom spoke to his mother, but she didn't hear him.
I can't find anything wrong with this car; it runs well and sounds smooth.
The children next door stole a toy from my son. Their mother told them to return the
toy, but they said it was theirs.
2) Pronoun concord in person on textual level
In a text, pronouns should be consistent in person from beginning to end. This is a
matter of speaking or writing from what point of view, from the speaker's or writer's
point of view or from that of a third party. A consistent point of view is a guarantee of
clarity in writing. Here is a student's paragraph in which the point of view is fuzzy:
As we strode through the alleyways between the houses, we met a few shy, ragged
children who were gleefully playing with an equally ragged dog. From the stoop of his
front door, a wrinkled old man with a red bandana wrapped around his head meditatively
surveyed the distances beyond the mesa. In the distance, one could discern the dim
shapes of the farmers in their sparse corn patches. The rhythm of a woman grinding corn
could be heard along the yellow street from within one of the small apartments.
The reader may wonder how the writer saw "dim shapes in the distance," and
heard sounds "along the yellow street," and knew at the same time that the dim shapes
were farmers and that the sound came from a "woman grinding corn." All this goes to
show that, although the student uses clear details in his description, his shift in point of
view blurs their effect.
What follows will deal with some other problems in the use of pronouns: chiefly
the choice of pronoun case forms, the use of possessive pronouns and reflexive
pronouns, the generic use of personal pronouns, and some problems concerning pronoun
reference.
4 Choice of pronoun case forms
In English, most personal pronouns and the interrogative / relative pronoun who
have three case forms: the subjective case (I, we, you, he, she, it, they, who), the
objective case (me, us, you, him, her, it, them, whom), and the genitive case (my / mine,
our / ours, your / yours, his / his, her / hers, its, their / theirs, whose). The genitive case
falls into two categories: the determinative genitive and the nominal genitive. In this
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coursebook, the nominal genitive is termed "possessive pronoun", while the
determinative genitive "possessive determiner".
Generally speaking, when a personal pronoun is used as the subject of a sentence,
it takes the subjective case; when used as the object, the objective case; when used to
show possession, the genitive case, eg:
The twins were bored. They (subjective case) found nothing which interested
them (objective case). Their (possessive ease) vacation was fast becoming a disaster. But
thing are by no means all that simple. With regard to the choice of pronoun case forms,
the following points are to be noted.
1) Choice between subjective and objective ease
As has been pointed out, the choice between subjective and objective case
generally depends on whether a pronoun functions as subject or object in a sentence. But
there are exceptions to this general rule.
a) In informal style, when a personal pronoun functions as the subject of a minor
sentence that stands without a predicate or with only a nonfinite verb as the predicator,
the pronoun usually occurs in the objective rather than subjective case, eg:
Anyone knows Tom's address?
--Me.
What! Me angry! Surely, it's him with the red nose you mean, not me!
What! Me (to) play him at chess? No.
b) In comparative clauses, the choice between subjective and objective case
follows the general rule. But in informal style, a personal pronoun may appear in the
objective case even if acting as the subject of a comparative clause, especially when the
pronoun is followed by such items as all / both as appositive, eg:
He isn't as smart as he was.
I trust you as much as her.
You are much cleverer than her.
He is cleverer than us all.
She is taller than them both.
c) In an SVC construction where the subject complement is a personal pronoun,
the objective case sounds much more natural than the subjective case as required by a
prescriptive rule, eg:
Who's knocking at the door?
-- It's me.
If I were her, I would take the advice.
d) In a cleft-sentence where the focal element is a personal pronoun, the
subjective case is much more common than the objective case though it is permissible to
use the objective case in informal style, eg:
It is he who did it.
It was him who saved the drowning girl.
e) When the subject of a sentence is the construction of "everybody / nobody + but /
except + personal pronoun", the pronoun should occur in the objective case according to
a prescriptive rule, but usage requires that the subjective case be used so long as it
appears in the subject area. If the prepositional phrase is shifted to the end of the
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sentence, the pronoun usually occurs in the objective case even though it remains part of
the subject. Compare:
Nobody but she can solve our problems.
Everybody except he agreed to our proposal.
Nobody can solve our problems but her.
Everybody agreed to our proposal but him.
f) In a who-question, the case form of the interrogative pronoun is determined by
its function in the sentence. In formal style, the pronoun should be in the subjective case
when it functions as subject, and in the objective case when it functions as object, eg:
Who can solve our problems?
Whom can we trust at such a moment in history?
In informal style, however, so long as the pronoun (used as object) appears in the subject
slot, it takes the subjective form except when directly preceded by a preposition:
Who did you want to nominate?
Who are you talking about?
g) In a relative clause introduced by who, where the relative pronoun functions as
the subject of the clause and is followed by an insertion such as "I believe", "I think", the
pronoun generally occurs in the subjective rather than objective case, though it is
possible to use the objective case in very informal spoken language, eg..
She is a woman who people believe may be the president of the company
some day.
She has an adopted child who she says was an orphan.
I met a man whom I thought was a lunatic.
h) In a nominal clause introduced by whoever, the choice of the case form follows
the general rule. If this kind of relative pronoun acts as the subject complement after a
verb phrase containing to be, it usually occurs in the objective case, eg.
They always elect whoever is popular.
I will trust whomever they will elect.
My sympathy is with this poor man, whomever he might be thought to be.
2) Choice between objective and genitive case
As has been noted, when a personal pronoun is used as the object of a sentence, it
usually occurs in the objective case, and, when used to denote possession, in the genitive
case. Apart from these, the following points merit our attention.
a) When an -ing participle clause with a personal pronoun as its own subject
functions as the object of the main clause, the pronoun usually occurs in the genitive
case. In informal style, however, the pronoun may also appear in the objective case, eg.
I don't mind their / them changing their minds.
I want to avoid his / him thinking that I don't want to help.
Likewise, when the above-mentioned -ing participle clause is used as prepositional
complementation, the pronoun can occur either in the genitive or in the objective case,
the former being more frequently used than the latter, eg.
I told them about your / you resigning from office.
I am surprised at his / him making that mistake.
If the above-mentioned -ing participle clause is preceded by such predicate verbs
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as defer, deny and postpone, the pronoun can only appear in the genitive case rather than
in the objective, eg:
He doesn't deny his breaking the agreement.
My failure to complete the task deferred my going on a holiday.
Likewise, if the above-mentioned -ing participle clause acts as the subject of the
main clause, the pronoun can only take the genitive form, eg:
Her driving off so abruptly was most unfortunate.
His refusing to accept the invitation is really surprising.
b) In an SVOC construction, where the object is realized by a personal
pronoun, and the object complement by an -ing participle clause, the pronoun can only
take the objective form, eg:
I saw him falling down into the river.
They caught her cheating on the exam.
c) When an infinitive clause with a personal pronoun as its own subject functions
as the object of the main clause, the pronoun can only occur in the objective case, eg:
Everyone wanted him to be the leader of the movement.
They advised me to reconsider my decision.
5 Possessive pronouns, reflexive pronouns and generic use of personal pronouns
In the preceding section, we talked about the use of personal pronouns. We now
turn to the use of possessive and reflexive pronouns.
1) Possessive pronouns
As has been pointed out in the preceding section, what we call "possessive
pronouns" include the following nominal genitive forms: mine, yours, his, hers, ours,
yours, theirs. As we can see, the third person singular masculine possessive pronoun and
the corresponding determiner share the same form (his); the second person plural and
singular possessive pronouns also share the same form (yours) ; the third person singular
neutral it has not a nominal genitive form.
Possessive pronouns can perform most of the syntactic functions of a noun
phrase. They can act as subject, object, complement on the sentential level and as
prepositional complementation and appositive on the phrasal level, eg:
The car in the lot is his. Mine is the one with a broken light.
You have your ticket; we lost ours.
My car is just like hers.
Someone hit a car in the parking lot, mine unfortunately.
Possessive pronouns also occur in the so-called "double genitive", functioning as
genitive nouns, eg:
He is a friend of mine.
We were absorbed in that song of yours.
2) Reflexive pronouns
All personal pronouns have reflexive forms: myself, yourself, himself, herself,
itself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves. There is, in addition, an indefinite reflexive
pronoun oneself,
Reflexive pronouns can be used as object, complement and prepositional
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complementation co-referring to the subject or other elements in the clause or sentence.
In some cases the reflexive pronoun receives nuclear stress, and in other cases not. The
former is called the emphatic use of reflexive pronouns, while the latter the unemphatic
use.
a) Reflexives as appositive
In emphatic use, reflexives often follow a noun phrase or another pronoun as its
appositive to reinforce its meaning. When the reinforced item is the subject of a sentence,
the reflexive pronoun may have positional mobility. It may take medial or end position,
and even initial position, that is, the position before the subject so as to lend special
emphasis. If, on the other hand, the reinforced item is not the subject of the sentence, the
reflexive pronoun must directly follow the item it emphasizes. Compare:
The manager himself will interview Lucy.
The manager will interview Lucy himself.
Himself, the manager will interview Lucy.
I spoke to the president himself.
I like the diamond itself but not the setting.
b) Reflexives as prepositional complementation
As prepositional complementation, reflexives do not receive nuclear stress unless
they express contrastive meanings in specific contexts, eg:
I have nothing to say for myself.
You think too much of yourself.
He is not worried about himself.
Collocated with certain prepositions, reflexives can express special, often
metaphorical and emotive, meanings, eg.
She was worried about herself, not about him.
The old man lives by himself.
The enemy will not perish of himself.
He was beside himself with joy.
How I wish to have a room to myself.
e) Reflexives as object
Used as object, reflexives often appear in such collocations as "verb + reflexive +
adverb" and "verb + reflexive + preposition", as well as in some idioms. This is a kind of
unemphatic use, eg:
You must pull yourself together.
She always prides herself on having a glorious past.
I don't want to make a show of myself before strangers.
Don't make a nuisance of yourself.
Collocated with behave, conduct and deport in SVO constructions, reflexives do
not receive nuclear stress. This kind of SVO construction is usually used to show the
acceptability of one's conduct or behaviour, eg.
He behaved himself fairly well when he was at college.
The boys were trained to deport themselves like gentlemen.
As indirect object in SVoO constructions, reflexives are preferable to
corresponding objective pronouns except in spoken American English, where reflexives
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and objective pronouns can be used interchangeably in such contexts, eg.
He promised himself a rapid progress.
I have left myself little pocket money.
I bought me ( = myself) a new hat.
In an SVOC construction where the object is realized by a reflexive, the
complement often denotes the consequences caused by the action to oneself, eg.
He talked himself hoarse.
They quarrelled themselves red in the face.
In the construction of "catch / find / hear + reflexive + com-plement", the
complement usually denotes some involuntary situation one is in, eg.
Mr Jones found himself thinking.
He heard himself apologizing to her.
In the construction of "fancy / see + reflexive + complement", the complement
usually denotes some imaginary situations, eg:
She still fancies herself young and pretty.
I can't see myself allowing people to cheat me.
d) Other uses of reflexives
Besides the above-mentioned uses, reflexives can also function as subject
complement, chiefly denoting one's physical conditions. In this use, reflexives are
usually stressed. This is a kind of emphatic use, eg.
Frank is not quite himself today.
Now I feel quite myself.
According to a prescriptive rule, reflexives should "never" be used as the subject
of a sentence or as part of a compound subject. But this rule is not very strictly observed.
In informal style, reflexives are commonly used as part of a compound subject.
Occasionally they can be used even as the subject of a sentence in colloquial speech, eg.
Pat and I myself are writing a book.
My brother and myself went sailing yesterday.
Neither Fred nor yourself had anything to do with it.
When the subject of a sentence is realized by "anyone / no one but + reflexive",
usage requires that we use the first and second person, rather than the third person,
reflexives, eg..
Anyone but yourself would have noticed the change.
Nobody but myself noticed the change.
But instead of "Nobody but himself ... ", we should say.
Nobody but he himself speaks French here.
One more point to add. If the subject is realized by "no one but + personal
pronoun", usage requires us to use a subjective pronoun; if the but-phrase is shifted to the
end of the sentence, that is, to the object territory, we should use the objective case, eg..
Nobody but I noticed the change.
No one but he speaks French here.
Nobody said anything about it but me.
No one speaks French here but him.
3) Generic use of personal pronouns
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Personal pronouns and their genitive and reflexive forms are usually used for
specific reference, but some personal pronouns can also be used to refer to people in
general or to a class of things. That is the generic use of personal pronouns.
There are four pronouns that can be so used. They are one, we, you and they.
Indefinite one (meaning people in general including you and me) is commonly used in
formal style. It has its genitive form one's and its reflexive form oneself. To avoid the
repetition of one / one's in the same sentence, we can use he / his instead, especially in
American English, eg:
One should not overwork oneself / himself.
If one wants to see the ruins, he must find h/s own guide.
Generic we is also used in formal style, commonly occurring in serious writing
whose author seeks to make an intimate appeal to the reader and involve the reader in a
joint enterprise, eg:
We must do our work conscientiously if we value our careers.
Generic you is typically an informal equivalent of one, but
with a very intimate tone, meaning "people in general including both the speaker and the
hearer", eg.
If you want to see the ruins, you must go on foot.
Like generic you, generic they is also informal, but it excludes reference to the
speaker and the hearer, eg..
They say it is going to rain this afternoon.
It should be noted that different generic pronouns must not co-occur in one and
the same sentence, that is, we must not change generic pronouns in the middle of a
sentence except for semantic reasons. Comment on the following:
"If we look into the minutes, you will be surprised how much time was wasted in
useless discussion.
The neutral third person singular it and its plural form they can also be used
generically. When so used, it and they commonly refer to noun phrases with zero article
as determiner, eg:
I don't like cheese and don't even want to taste it.
Oysters are delicious, and they are inexpensive.
6 Pronoun reference
Pronoun reference is a kind of reference realized through the use of pronouns.
When a pronoun is used, it must refer to somebody or something. What is referred to is
called referent or antecedent. It is the antecedent that indicates the referential meaning of
the pronoun.
1) Anaphoric, cataphoric and situational reference
According to the relative position of the referent or antecedent, pronoun reference
can be anaphoric or cataphoric. When the antecedent occurs before the pronoun, which
has to point backward for its own interpretation, that is anaphoric reference; if the
antecedent appears after the pronoun, and the pronoun has to point forward for its
meaning, that is cataphoric reference. If the antecedent does not occur anywhere in a
linguistic context, and the pronoun only refers to somebody or something indicated by an
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extralinguistic situation in which the utterance is given, that is situational reference.
Examples:
Bob told Lucy that Ruth was leaving, but she didn't believe him. (anaphoric
reference)
When he was at college, Alex was a great friend of mine. (cataphoric reference)
(Pointing to the children's bedroom) Are they asleep? (situational reference)
Just as the referential meaning of a pronoun is generally indicated by its
antecedent, a pronoun is not clear in meaning unless its antecedent is clearly expressed.
Comment on the following:
In discussing the language requirements, it made us feel that we had the
wrong idea about the usefulness of a foreign language. (What does "it" refer to?)
When a pronoun is used, it can only refer to one antecedent. If a pronoun has two
or more possible antecedents, that will lead to ambiguity. Comment on the following:
In jumping after the rat, our dog knocked two lamps on the floor and broke several
glasses on the lamp table. We found them smashed the next morning. (Does "them" refer
to lamps or glasses or both?)
2) Personal reference
Personal reference is established by personal pronouns, possessive pronouns,
reflexive pronouns and corresponding determiners. Personal reference is generally
anaphoric. It may occur within the sentence boundary or across sentences.
Personal reference can also be cataphoric, but under limited conditions. Generally
speaking, cataphoric personal pronouns usually occur in subordinate constructions, and
where cataphoric reference occurs, anaphoric reference can be used instead, but not
conversely, eg:
After she weighed anchor, the ship sailed out of the harbour.
= After the ship weighed anchor, she sailed out of the harbour.
Mary bought a new dress, but she didn't like it. The sentence differs from She
bought a new dress, but Mary didn't like it.
3) Demonstrative reference
Demonstrative reference is established by demonstrative pronouns and
demonstrative determiners. All the demonstratives can be freely used in anaphoric
reference. As for cataphoric demonstratives, they are restricted to this and these, which
are commonly used to refer to a clause or sentence or a group of sentences that follow.
That and those are rarely used cataphorically. When occasionally so used, that and those
often take on sarcastic meanings. Compare:
Necessity is the mother of invention. This / That is remarkably true. (anaphoric
reference)
Listen to this. There should be no error, no delay, and no waste. (cataphoric
reference)
How do you like that? He stabs you in the back and then professes to be your
friend. (cataphoric reference)
Part III Notes from ZHANG Keli about English pronouns
What is a pronoun? Traditionally, pronouns refer to words used in place of nouns,
12
noun phrases or clauses. The English language has a large and well-developed number of
pronouns. There are seven kinds of English pronouns: personal pronouns (with their
subjective, objective and genitive cases, whether nominative, determinative or
possessive), reflexive pronouns, reciprocal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns,
interrogative pronouns, relative pronouns, and indefinite pronouns. There are topics for
heated discussions concerning the agreement of pronouns with their antecedents in
person, number, gender and /or reference. We shall discuss the usage of pronouns from
the point of view of structures.
1
Subjective Pronouns VS. Objective Pronouns As Subject
Everyone knows that the subjective personal pronouns are used as the subject of the
sentence, but sometimes in informal usages objective pronouns are also used as such. Of
course attention is to be paid to the change of the verb forms: He teaches English (=Him
teach English)? I am careful (=Me be careful)? What! I do a thing like that (= Me do a
thing like that)? I am (I/Me) a professor? What? He is (He/ Him) angry! They work as
hard as we (do)（=as us）. It is he who/that is to blame=It is him that who is to blame. It
is I who/that am to blame=It is me that/who is to blame. Everyone except me/I went
there. Everyone went there except me/I. In negative sentences are such structures, too.
For example, John is a coward, but not I (=not me). “Me! Marry a poor girl? No, not
I(=not me)!” She did not believe in anything, any more than you or I/me. No one but
him/he would have thought of it.
2
Of- Genitives VS. Possessive Determiners
We know that the of genitives and ’s genitives are most often interchangeable, but it
is unlikely for the + noun + of + objective personal pronoun to substitute possessive
determiner + noun. Compare the following sentences: That cough will be the death of
me (* my death) one of these days. Anything is good enough for the like(s) of you (*your
like(s)). We did it for the honor of him (*his honor). By the look of it (*its look) we shan’t
have much rain this year. It is not difficult once you have caught the trick of it (*its trick).
Press the button when the light goes on—you’ll soon get the hang of it (=the button). But
when there is a verb-object relationship, the possessive determiner is more likely. For
example, All ideologies are based upon dogmatic statements which are, at best, doubtful,
and at worst, totally false. Their adherents believe in them so fanatically that they are
willing to go to war in support of them.
3
Personal Pronouns VS. Reflexive Pronouns
As we know, reflexive pronouns rather than personal pronouns are required after
reflexive verbs like absent (oneself from), avail (oneself of), ingratiate (oneself with),
pride (oneself on), accuse, admire, amuse, blame, cut, defrost, dislike, feed, get, hurt,
persuade and semi-reflexive verbs (where the reflexive pronouns may be omitted) like
behave, shave, adjust, dress, hide, identify...with, prepare…for, wash, worry. For
example, I enjoyed myself very much at the dance, He had busied himself in the
laboratory. Conrad and I contented ourselves with expressing our relief. He prides
himself on his tidiness. Tom addressed the envelope to himself. She made herself very
13
unpopular. She sat by herself (=alone). We proved (ourselves) innocent in court. Jane’s
mother gets herself up before 8 o’clock. She often washes (herself) in cold water. But on
the following occasions they are interchangeable although I still think the personal
pronouns are more appropriate:
(1) After prepositions like as for, like, but (for), except (for), besides: Except for
us/ourselves, the whole village was asleep. Between you and me (=between ourselves), I
think she’s left her husband.
(2) After subordinators like as…as…, and: Sandra’s sister is even taller than
her/herself. Kate and I/myself think that nobody is involved in it. My wife and myself
were invited to the party.
(3) After some spatial prepositions like about, behind: She’s building a wall of Russian
books about her/herself. They left the apartment, pulling the spring lock shut behind
them/themselves.
4
this/these, that/those as either Demonstrative Pronouns or Demonstrative
Determiners
This and these can be used for both anaphoric reference and cataphoric reference while
that and those can only be used for anaphoric reference. For example, She married Joe,
and that/this surprised me. “I may have to work late. In that/this case, I’ll telephone.”
The first man on the moon, creatures from outer space, the discovery of new life forms
and precious metals—those/these were the dreams that caught people’s imagination.
They had a lot of diamonds, and they asked her if she could possibly get those /these
diamonds to Britain.
Most often they are not interchangeable when
(1) this stands for the latter and that stands for the former: Alcohol and tobacco are
both injurious; this (tobacco /the latter) however, is less injurious than that (alcohol/ the
former). The same is the case with these and those: Dogs are more faithful animals than
cats; these/the latter attach themselves to places, and those / the former to persons.
(2) that stands for the latter (the extra position 外位结构): That/This is a mistake,
letting him go free. “What do you think of THAT! Bob smashes up my car, and then
expects me to pay for the repairs.”
(3) this and/or these stand for the latter: This/*That is what he said: “How could he
be such a fool!” These were the facts: on a warm February afternoon, Gregory Clark
and a friend were cruising down Washington Boulevard in Mustang.
(4) these stands for the nearest former terms: As no man of seven could reach the
upper shelves, a pair of steps was provided for Darious, and up these he had to
scramble. (Here these stands for steps rather than for pair.)
5 who and whom as Objects and Other Clause Clements
We know that who and whom are interchangeable as subjects and objects when they are
used as interrogative pronouns or relative pronouns, as is shown in sentences like
Who(m) did you meet in the street yesterday? Who(m) were they supposed to do it for?
For whom/*who were they supposed to do it? I wonder who(m) you met in the street.
There’s a woman over there who(m) I can’t help noticing. Lord Scarman is a man who(m)
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I have immense respect for. The author of “Rebels”, who(m) I met at a party last week,
proved to be a well-known journalist. The hotel manager, to whom /*who I complained
about the service refunded part of our bill. Is that who(m) you mean? She can marry
who(m)/who(m)ever she pleases. I’ll give it to who(m)/who(m)ever I wish (or: like,
choose, want, please).
However, in the following sentences who can not be changed for whom as who here
stands for the person who: So that’s who he’s working for. I’m who you’re looking for. Is
that who you mean/like? And whom is preferred to who in structures where the personal
pronouns are used as object complements: The woman whom/*who we thought to be her
turned out to be her sister.; or in structures where the relative pronouns are used as object
complements or retained objective complements in the clauses: I don’t know whom/*who
she is supposed to be. I don’t know whom/*who they suppose her to be.; Or in structures
where the pronouns introducing concessive clauses are used as objects or retained
objects, whomever is preferred: I won’t let him in, whomever/*whoever they might think
him to be. I won’t let him in, whomever/*whoever he might be thought to be.
Besides, when the relative pronouns and interrogative pronouns are used as the
subjects in the clauses, who is preferred: Of all us men who /*whom I think should be
available for office, Thompson is the first who comes to mind. They were quarrelling as
to who/*whom they stranger was. Some persons, I know hot who/*whom, think so. (I
know not who=I know not who they were)
6
that and who(m) as Relative Pronouns
All of us may know that in restrictive relative clauses where the antecedents are
nouns, both that and who can be used as the subject in the clause: Any man that /who
commits such crimes should be sent to prison. Where’s the girl who/that sells the tickets?
Where the relative pronouns are used as objects or prepositional complementation
in the clauses, that/who(m) may be used unless there is a preposition before the pronouns
when whom is preferred to all others: Every worker ( )/ who(m)/that I saw in the factory
was wearing a boiler suit. He is the policeman ( )/who(m)/that the burglar fired the gun
at. He is the policeman at whom the burglar fired the gun.
That is preferred though sometimes who(m) is used when their antecedents are with
superlative adjectives, ordinal numerals, only or very, compound indefinite pronouns
like someone, and occasionally with all, any: You are the very people that/who(m) I want
to talk to. The only person that /who was visible was a policeman. Is there anyone
that/who(m) you want to see? All that /who wish to apply must do so in writing.
However, in relative clauses where the antecedents are pronouns, who is preferred
to that when the antecedents are demonstrative pronouns that or those: Who was that
who/*that called a few minutes ago? Those who/*that wear glasses should have their
eyes examined at regular intervals. And when interrogative pronouns who and which are
used as the antecedents, the relative pronoun that is preferred to who(m) to avoid
repetition: Who that/*whom you have heard of defines man as a rational animal? Which
of us that/*who is thirty years old has not got married yet? And in sentences where he
and those as antecedents are used for generic reference, who(m) is preferred to all others:
He who laughs last laughs best. Whoever laughs last laughs best. He/ The person to
15
whom we pay this tribute changed his party more than once. Those/*They who work hard
deserve some reward.
When the antecedents are collective nouns like crowd, committee, army, denoting
both personal nouns and impersonal beings, who, which, and that are all likely: The
committee which was (were)/that was(were)/who were (*was) responsible for this
consists of five members.
In relative clauses with parallel antecedents having both personal nouns and
non-personal pronouns, the relative pronoun that is preferred because it can stand for
both animate and inanimate beings: The men and manners that/( ) he describes will be
unfamiliar to most of his readers. She’ll never forget the people and things that/which
amuse her most. And in cleft sentences introduced by It, who(m) and that (in spoken
English they can be omitted) are most likely: It was the girl who/that/ ( ) was
complaining about it. It was Robert whom/that /( ) Taylor met. I sometimes wonder who
it is that/ *who/( ) makes the fashion. Who was it that /*who told you that? Who was tha/
who/ *that /( ) called a few minutes ago?
In existential sentences introduced by there be or here be with personal
antecedents, who is preferred to that though it may be omitted in spoken English. But
when the there be structure is itself a relative clause, that is preferred to who: There was
somebody who/ ( ) called yesterday. Here’s a teacher who/ ( )will tell you how to answer
the question. Jane is one of the finest students ( )/ that/ *who there are in the class.
John’s the only customer ( )/ that/ *who there is in the shop.
In non-restrictive relative clauses, the relative pronoun who(m) is not to be omitted
whether they are acting as objects or subjects in the clauses. That is not popular as a
relative pronoun to introduce such clauses: My employer, who/ *that has a degree in
economics, also speaks five languages fluently. Bill, whom / *that we saw at the dance,
wants to go out with me. However, there are occasions on which which as subject
complement in the relative clause is preferred to either who(m) or that: My brother is a
millionaire, which/ *who/ *that I am not.
Sometimes the relative pronoun is used as a concessive conjunction to mean
though/although/as, in which case that is preferred to either which or who(m): Apt
scholar that /*which/*who he was, they were equally apt teachers, never allowing him to
linger long in error. Lover of towns that/ *which/ *who I am, I owe a debt to my early
country life.
7
that and which as Relative Pronouns
7.1 In Restrictive Relative Clauses
Usually speaking, both that and which are possible in restrictive relative clauses, but
that is preferred to which when the antecedents are non-personal indefinite pronouns like
all, much, little, none, any, a few, or are impersonal nouns with superlative adjectives,
ordinal numerals (including last, next, etc.), only very, no, all, much, little, a few, none,
and any. For example, This is the book which /that/ ( ) I have chosen. The doctor
suggested that the illness from which/ *that the patient was suffering had probably been
contracted in the tropics. All that/*which remains can be divided between you. There was
little that/ *which could not be done. There is not something that *which would disturb
16
you (cf. I saw something in the paper that/which would interest you. She then proceeded
to relate the little nothings which had passed since the winter.) This is the funniest film
that /*which has ever come from Ealing studios. Which is the first steamship that /*which
crossed the Atlantic? All the apples that /*which fall down are eaten by the pigs.
In the there/here be structures with non-personal nouns, the relative pronouns are
likely to be omitted in spoken English. And when the there be construction is in the
restrictive clause, then the subjective relative pronoun should be that instead of which. If
the antecedent is a demonstrative pronoun like that (+Noun) or those (+noun), which is
preferred to that as the relative pronoun: There is a table that/ ( ) stands in the corner.
There are some planets that /*（）were discovered by the ancients. You may keep the
money that/ ( ) /*which there is left after buying your coat. I can do any practical work
that/ ( ) /*which there is to be done. What is that which /*that/ ( ) you promised him? I
don’t like those books which /*that/ ( ) you bought last week. But when there is a
interrogative pronoun or an antecedent it in the main clause, that is preferred to which:
Which is the course that /*which/ ( ) we are to take? What is it that/ *which/ ( ) you
want?
When the restrictive relative clause has become a separated modifier which is
preferred when the antecedent is a non-personal noun, but that is preferred when the
separated antecedent contains only, first, all, etc.: I put the book on the bookshelf
which/*that I had read many times. This was the only book on the bookshelf that /*which
I had read many times.
7.2
In Non-restrictive Relative Clauses
which is always used when the antecedents are non-personal nouns: The
Birmingham train, which/ *that/ *( ) is standing at Platform 4, will be leaving at 16:00.
He blamed me for everything, which/ *that/ *( ) I thought very unfair.
whose as a relative adjective, despite the usage as a non-personal noun, is only used
to refer to the specific noun in the main clause rather than the whole of the main clause
or a part of it. Thus, He admires Mrs. Brown, which/ *whose fact I find strange. He lost
his temper, at which/ *whose point I decided to go home.
8
Relative Pronouns as Complements in Relative Clauses
8.1 In Restrictive Clauses
When personal pronouns are used as antecedents in restrictive clauses, which, that or
zero relative pronoun may be used as subjective complements to denote the character,
quality or type or function instead of the person, so who is not to be used: I am not the
man which/ that/ ( )/ *who I was when you knew me first. This is much more convincing
to the scientist which / that/ ( )/ *who I am not than to the economist. He is not the man
which/ that/ ( ) *who his father wants him to be. He is no longer the man which/ that/ ( )/
*who I thought him to be. The same is the case with the relative pronouns used as
subjective/objective complements denoting something non-personal: The paper was
enabled to become the great property which/ that/ ( ) it is now. I remember the time when
cigarettes were one-third of the price which/ that/ ( ) they are now.
8.2 In Non-restrictive Relative Clauses
In non-restrictive relative clauses where personal nouns are used as the antecedents,
17
which is preferred to that or who, and zero relative pronouns are not allowed: Anna is a
vegetarian, which/ *who/ *( ) no one else is in our family. He looked like a lawyer, which
/ *that/ *( ) he was.
The same is the case with sentences where the antecedents are Non-personal nouns
or adjectives: Saladin turned the church into a mosque, which/ *that/ *9 ) it still is today.
They think that fashion is just nonsense, which it is not. When overwrought, which/ *that/
*( ) he often was, he became acutely irritable. He feared lest people should think him
unpractical, which he was not.
9
9.1
both vs. two, none vs. neither, every one vs. everyone
both vs. two
both of refers to apposition while two of refers to partiality: Both/*Two of my
gloves have been lost. You must choose one of the two (*one of both).
In the two of / the three of …, of is to show apposition: Two of us spoke Chinese
does not mean The two of us(=We two) speak Chinese.
9.2
either of vs. neither of, etc.
either of vs. neither of are usually followed by singular verb forms but may
sometimes be followed by plural verbs in informal speeches: Either of his legs was
injured in the accident. Neither of them knows/know where the man has gone.
None of and any of are singular when followed by non-count nouns, and are either
singular or plural when followed by plural nouns completely dependent upon the context:
None of the townspeople have /has ever seen such weather. None of the food was/ *were
good. I don’t think that any of the cakes are/ is left. I don’t think that any of the money is/
*are left.
9.3 everyone vs. every one, etc.
Everyone used alone means everybody: I stayed at work when everyone/everybody
else had gone home.
Everyone cannot be followed by of + plural nouns but every one (denoting
partiality) can: Every one of (*Everyone of …) my Latin teachers stressed grammar.
Every one of (*Everyone of …) my English courses dealt with the British past.
But Everyone can be followed by prepositional phrases denoting sphere or range:
Everyone in the village is friendly to newcomers.
Any one of and no one of are nearly the same in structure as Every one of, but no
one of is not as often used as none of: It took two of them to do the work that any one of
us could do. Any one of my Latin courses taught me more English grammar than all my
English courses. No one/ None of her books was a success.
10 Pronoun Concord in Number, Gender and Person
The following sentences may help draw a conclusion: the context decides on the
usage. Everyone was clapping their hands. Everybody talked at the top of his voice. My
friend and roommate lent me his car. My friend and my roommate lent their cars. The
team has won its first game. The team are on the floor taking their practice shots at the
basket. They each have their problems. They have each his own problems. The sailor saw
a ship in the distance. She (=the ship) was sailing towards the rocky island. The woman
18
said, “The car needs some petrol. Let’s fill him up at the next station.” (Perhaps a man
would use “fill her up” instead). China is in Asia. It is one of the largest countries in the
world. In the last decade of the 20th century, China began to assume her role as a world
power.
Both traditional and contemporary English grammars have discussed very
successfully the formation, the function and the semantics of pronouns, but there is one
issue which is not done scientifically enough: the classification of English pronouns.
Everybody knows that the classification of everything in the world is based on a category
for evaluation; otherwise the classification would be misleading. Therefore most of us
authors of grammar books have talked about each of the above-mentioned terms when
talking about the classification of English pronouns, but neglected the importance of
following the basic rule of scientific research. When talking about the first class of
pronouns (Personal Pronouns), we have forgotten the personalness of pronouns as a
basis, thus failing to mention most of the other pronouns as impersonal pronouns and
non-personal pronouns. When talking about indefinite pronouns, we have always
forgotten the other pronouns, most of which are in reality definite pronouns. Not that the
neglect of the criteria in the discussion of classification of pronouns will affect the
students’ ability to use the language, but that it will seriously affect the students’
cognitive development: the way of thinking, which is the essence of all education
activities. I mention the problem here not to show that I have studied it well enough (in
fact I have only just realized the serious error in our own teaching activities), but to
appeal to all learners and teachers of English grammar to lay some emphasis on the
analysis of logic in our textbooks so as to stimulate and activate our cognitive
development.
Part Three: Substitution (45 minutes)
Substitution is a grammatical device for avoiding repetition and achieving textual
cohesion. There are three kinds of substitution: nominal substitution, verbal substitution,
and clausal substitution, and therefore three kinds of substitutes., nominal substitutes,
verbal substitutes, and clausal substitutes.
1 Nominal substitution
We shall start with nominal substitution and nominal substitutes.
1) What is nominal substitution
Nominal substitution means the replacement of a noun or a noun phrase by a
nominal substitute, eg..
He doesn't like this book. Show him a more interesting one.
If you want a typewriter, they will provide you with one.
There are good films as well as bad ones.
Nominal substitutes include such items as one, ones, the same,
the kind, the sort, eg.Slang disappears quickly, especially the juvenile sort.
19
Nominal substitutes also include some indefinite pronouns, such asall, both,
some, any, enough, several, none, many, much, ( a ) few , (a) little, the other, others,
another, either, neither, etc, eg:
Can you get me some nails? I need some.
I don't want any more food. I've had enough.
2) Uses of one/ones as substitutes
Special attention will be paid to the uses of nominal substitutes one and ones.
a) Substitute one is commonly used to replace a count noun or a countable noun
phrase, but ones can only replace a plural noun and cannot replace a whole noun phrase.
Both one and ones can be used for ersonal as well as non-personal reference, eg..
The new design is much better than the old one.
There were a few young people with some old ones in the house.
b) When one replaces the headword of a noun phrase, it usually takes a
determiner, but this substitute cannot be immediately preceded by an indefinite article or
a possessive determiner unless they are intervened by a premodifier, eg:
Can I have a melon? I'd like a big one.
Your car isn't fast enough. Let's take his new one
One and ones cannot collocate with both or own, nor can they collocate with
the cardinal numerals, eg..
I prefer red roses to white ones, but my wife likes both. (not * both ones)
If there's any difficulty about cars, we can bring our own. (not * our own ones )
You have four children. I have only two. (not * two ones)
c) When one is substituted for a whole noun phrase, it does not take any
determiner or premodifier. In that case, one is used in generic reference. Here lies the
difference between nominal substitution and personal / demonstrative reference.
Compare:
I need this dictionary, but I can't afford it.
I need a good dictionary, but I can't afford one.
d) As a nominal substitute, ones can only replace the headword of a noun phrase,
and therefore is always preceded by "determiner +premodifier", eg..
I have a new dictionary and several old ones.
e) One and ones can be omitted when they take such determiners as this / these,
that / those, which, either, neither, another, the last and the next, eg.
Judy broke the coffee-pot, so she has to buy another (one).
Some of your answers were correct, but I can't remember which (ones).
Ellipsis is also possible when one and ones take the definite article with a restrictive
premodifier, eg..
I prefer the large bottle to the small (one).
or when they collocate with a premodifying adjective in comparative or superlative
degree, eg:
If you offer him cookies, he will take a handful of the biggest (ones).
3) Nominal substitute vs generic pronoun or cardinal numeral
We must learn to distinguish between the one used as nominal substitute and the
one as generic pronoun or cardinal numeral. Compare:
20
One can't be too careful in matters like this.
My old car is much better than the new one.
I don't want too many copies. One is enough.
4) Nominal substitute vs one / ones as lexical item
Distinction should also be drawn between nominal substitute one / ones and one /
ones used in special senses. Compare:
Oh, you are a one ( -- a bold amusing person), telling that joke in front of the priest.
George went on drinking, and by and by he fell to misusing his wife and the little
ones ( -- his children).
2 Verbal substitution
Let us move on to verbal substitution and verbal substitutes.
1) What is verbal substitution
Verbal substitution means the replacement of a verb element by a verbal substitute
do or do so. What is replaced by substitute do may be "main verb + complementation",
eg:
A: We all hate hypocrisy.
B: Yes, everybody does. (does = hates hypocrisy)
It may also be the main verb alone, eg:
A: Have they moved the furniture?
B.. They have done ( = moved) the desks, but that's all so far.
Verbal substitute do, when used to replace !'main verb + complementation', usually
occurs in the affirmative form. Its negative form does not represent verbal substitution
but verbal ellipsis. Compare:
A.. Does Peter speak French?
B.. Yes, he does ( = speaks French).
No,he doesn't (speak French).
2) Uses of verbal substitutes
The principal uses of the verbal substitutes may be summarized as follows:
a) From the examples cited above, we can see that the verb replaced by substitute
do is usually a notional verb. If the verb replaced is transitive, its object is usually
retained, eg:
She plays the piano better than she does the guitar.
As substitute do is itself a main verb, it can go with auxiliaries, eg:
John has never acted as he should have done.
When the substitute occurs in negative or interrogative sentences, it will often combine
with an appropriate form of auxiliary do, eg:
A: Mary studies modern history and doesn't do modern languages.
B: Does she do ancient history, too?
A: No, she doesn't.
When substitute do is used to replace a main verb, it applies to dynamic verbs
only, but when it replaces "main verb + complementation", it applies to both dynamic
and stative verbs. Here is a difference between British and American English. In British
English, substitute do applies to any kind of main verb except the stative be and have; in
21
American English, however, an ellipsis or repetition of the stative verb is preferable.
Compare:
Paula looks very happy. She seems happier now than she did ( = seemed happy) last
time we met. (British English)
Paula looks very happy. She seems happier now than she seemed last time we met.
(American English)
b) Substitute do can combine with so to form a compound substitute do so, which
can be used to replace a predication of "verb +object" or "verb + adverbial", e.g..
He said he would tell me the news, but he didn't do so.
He smokes like a chimney, Does his brother do so?
This form is sometimes interchangeable with do it and do that.
c) Substitute do can also combine with so to form two patterns of short-response..
"So + do + subject" and "So + subject + do", e.g.
A: I like playing football.
B: So do I.
So does my brother.
So did my father.
A: The students all work hard.
B: So they do.
3 Clausal substitution
Whereas the substitutes discussed previously only replace parts of phrases or clauses,
so and not may substitute for complete clauses.
1) What is clausal substitution
Clausal substitution means the replacement of a clause by a clausal substitute—so
or not, eg:
A: Do you think he'll come tomorrow?
B: Yes, I think so.
No, I think not.
As clausal substitutes, so and not can go with if to form verbless clauses "if so" and "if
not", e.g.
They say he will come tonight. If so, the meeting will be held tomorrow. If not,
there won't be any meeting tomorrow.
2) Uses of clausal substitutes
As clausal substitutes, so and not are commonly used to replace that-clauses
representing a belief, an assumption or an emotion with a tone of uncertainty or
tentativeness. These substitutes normally go with such expressions as I'm afraid , I
believe, I guess, I fear, I suppose, I think, etc. In sentences with transferred negation, it is
more natural to say "I don't think so", "I don't suppose so", etc. In sentences expressing
certainty or doubt, substitute so is impossible, e.g:
A: Are the girls coming to the party?
B: I'm sure they are ! I'm sure of it.
I doubt if they are / I doubt it.
There is also difference between so and not used as clausal substitutes. Substitute
22
so can go with some communication verbs such as say, tell, etc, e.g.
A: The Yankees will win the game.
B: All my friends say so.
A: How do you know that he is leaving soon?
B: He told me so.
Substitute not cannot be used this way except in sentences with a generic pronoun as
subject, e.g.
A: Are the Yankees a very strong team?
B: No, they say not.
Substitute not can go with some modal adverbs such as perhaps , possibly, probably,
certainly, surely, etc to form some short responses, eg..
A: Is your brother going with you?
B: Perhaps not / Possibly not / Surely not.
But substitute so cannot be used in such utterances. Substitute not can also go with why
to form an elliptical question "Why not?", whereas so is rarely used in such collocation,
e.g.
A: I didn't stop him.
B: Why not?
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