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Ancient History Theory: Discourse-an individual’s “frame of mind” as they write history-Determined by their personal beliefs and the world around them. Narrative- The story behind the events which an individual is describingDetermined by the individual’s discourse. Sources for ancient history: 1) Ruins/artifacts 2) Inscriptions-original writing 3) Coinage 4) Historical Writing-may have changed over the centuries as it was copied and re-copied Ancient Near East: Up until 9000 B.C. all humans were hunters + Gatherers- There were many limitations to this mode of life: a) limited to small groups b) had to follow herds c) couldn’t store food (no containers) d) limited personal items - 9000 B.C., this changed as cultivation of plants(agriculture) and domestication of herd animals (pastoralism) began in the ancient Near East- small settlements sprang up all along the fertile crescentsettled life gave several advantages: a) larger social groups-better protection b) more direct control of food + water supply-ceramics, storage buildings c) reduced childhood mortality d) not just meat from herds but wool, milk Jericho- 8000 B.C., homes made of mud bricks- 1,500 people- walled for defense or perhaps flooding- Evidence for agriculture but not domestication of animals. After 7000 B.C. pottery becomes widespread. Chatal Huyuk- Huyuk is a mound created from layers of eroded mud bricks. 1) Wall paintings- Giant bull 2) Bull’s head- religious significance 3) Fertility Statues- religious significance 4) Copper Jewelry 5000-6000 people- Cattle bonessource of meat-wheat cultivated. -No walls but entrance to buildings were on roofs. _____________________________ -3500-Birth of cities-Uruk is considered the First city ever-Early city culture is called Uruk Culture 4000-3000-Characteristics of cities: A) society divided by class- ruled by a religious, military + political elite who accumulated wealth based on the imposition of taxes and tribute- some of this wealth was redistributed to the people- Some was used to erect monumental public buildings-had middle class of merchants – poor class of farmers – had slave class B) Job specialization- ex: weavers, millers, weapon/armor craftsman, potters - Full-time craftsmen emerge - most people still farm. - Slavery begins. C) Increase in technology: a) Wheel b) Arsenic added to copper to make it harder D) City acts as a point of collection and redistribution of goods and provides a number of central services-City is a center in its geographical setting, the focal point both for its own inhabitants and for the people living in the countryside. E) invention of writing- used to keep track of financial transactionsused clay tablets- writing was for economic transactions such as transfer of grain, beer, livestockcould keep accurate records of transactions-didn’t need to remember details of transactions- Early writing was in Pictographs (simple pictures which represented objects) some exceptions: + = sheep - Eventually cuneiform became the ubiquitous way to write various Near Eastern languages-(by-2350 B.C.) ----------------------------------------Early Dynastic Period (29002350) - Writings called royal inscriptions make their first appearance- these writings tell us about the names of kings and their deeds…they tend to be extremely exaggerated - City-state (city + 15km radius) was the basic element of the political organization of Babylonia- roughly 35 city-states existed in Babylonia- An important element in Mesopotamian ideology ( How people think of themselves and others) regarding cities was the concept that each city was the dwelling of a particular god or goddess- Each city had a patron deity (e.g. Nanna for Ur, Ihanna for Uruk, Enlil for Nippur) This concept was linked to the role of the temple in the city- The god’s house hold was the temple and the tribute (agricultural resources) paid to the god was collected at the temple and redistributed to the people. -Eventually kings took over job of high priests of temples and kings became the god’s representative on Earth. - Kings proclaimed that their powers derived from the gods- Kingship was very Theocratic in Babylonia (upper Mesopotamia was more secular) citystates fought wars against each other as their territories expanded + overlappedDisputes were usually over farmland, surplus food supplies, access to waterWarfare – Organized violence conducted by centralized states involving uniformly equipped troops. Before cities were around, there was no warfare by this definition- why not? - According to texts, wars were fought to avenge insults to gods- kings went to war at command of his god- - Famous example- Lagash vs. Ummaover a period of 150 years (25002350) the kings of Lagash fought their neighbor Umma- Royal inscriptions describe the conflict in terms of a dispute between Ningirsu( god of Lagash) and Shara( god of Umma) over a borderland area called Gu’ Eden- the kings of Lagash portrayed themselves as deputies acting on behalf of the gods- Most famous king was Eannatum. Standard of Ur and Vulture Stele are two famous inscriptions showing characteristics of true warfare - In addition to wars, there was also a lot of trade occurring between Babylonian cities at this time period. - _____________________________ Akkadian Empire-(2350-2230)Founded by Sargon who was king of Kish- First king to establish the dynastic system of kingship inheritance-He conquered cities all over Babylonia + upper MesopotamiaPolitically, the original city-rulers mostly remained in place, only now acting as governors for the king of Akkad- A new tax system was instituted in which part of the income of each region was siphoned off and sent to the capital- Sargon tried to incorporate his family into the religious ideology of the Babylonian cities- (exhe installed his daughter as high Priestess of Nanna at Ur- she was made Nanna’s wife. The daughter took on the name Enheduanna and she wrote some literature, making her the world’s first identifiable author!)- Distant areas beyond the empire were tied to it through marriage alliances- Sargon’s grandson Naram-Sin actually deified himself. Horned helm implied divine status- But continual opposition to Akkadian rule by cities of Mesopotamia and beyond may have led to the Akkadian empire’s downfall- After it fell, the land became fragmented again until the 3rd Dynasty of Ur arose- How did Sargon conquer cities?Cities had walls- Armies could lose battles but cities were still usually safe behind walls during Early Dynastic period- Sargon may have had some new technologies to work which involved siegecraft- - 1) He had a standing army (full time jobs-he says they ate in his presence, implying they were full time employees) which could lay siege to cities for longer periods-They used a new type of bow called a composite bow which was made of strips of horn and bone, (and wood?) glued together-much more powerful (range 500-600 feet)than the standard wood bow (150 feet less) - 2) Earthen Ramps - 3) Sapping-poking holes/digging under walls. - 4) Siege towers After he captured a city the inhabitants were enslaved thus adding to his labor pool. Ur III(2100-2004 B.C.) Third dynasty of Ur- only lasted 5 generations. _______________________________ Hammurabi’s Babylonian Empire-1792-1600 B.C.- Most famous for its law code, recent evidence suggests that this isn’t actually a law code but rather a monument presenting Hammurabi as an exemplary King of Justice- the code has about 300 statements in an if …, then… pattern.(e.g. If a man commits a robbery and is caught, that man will be killed). Topics covered: crime, punishment, price controls, property rights, slave ownership, inheritance laws- penalties accessed according to social class (Freeman, dependant, slave) reinforced class structure. -The code is a vivid expression of Hammurabi as a king who provides justice in his land- Hammurabi lists 300 cases to prove his ability to guarantee justice and thus urged future kings to study + follow his examples-Babylonians were great mathematicians- they knew the Pythagorean Theorem (way before Pythagoras!) - In 1595 the Hittites sacked the city of Babylon and brought Marduk statue back to Anatolia. -Egyptian History- insulated and isolated from Mesopotamia until the 2nd millennium B.C.(after 2000 B.C.)Agriculture first began in about 5000 B.C. along the Nile Valley- Nile annual flooding provided fertile plains(irrigation not needed) Never developed city-states- Just had local settlements which coalesced into 2 states in 4th millennium: Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt- First king we know of was the Scorpion King(3150 B.C.), he ruled Upper Egypt- known only from Maceheads-Around 3100 Upper Kingdom(ruled by Narmer) conquered the lower kingdom and united all of Egypt- the Narmer Palette celebrates this achievement-Overview of Egyptian History: 1) Old Kingdom-2660-2181 2) First Intermediate Period 2181-2040Nile Valley divided among warring principalities/Raiders seized Delta. 3) Middle Kingdom-2040-1782 4) Second Intermediate Period 17821570- Hyksos rule Egypt. 5) New Kingdom 1570-1070. _________________________________ - See board- Osiris was wise- he gave agriculture to mankind-Seth tricked Osiris into getting inside a chest- Seth sealed the chest + threw it into the sea- Isis searched for her brother/husband- she found him dead + turned herself into a bird- the motion of her wings brought Osiris back to life long enough to impregnate Isis- Horus was born- When Horus grew up he challenged Seth to a duel, Seth ripped out Horus’ eye + tore him into bitsThoth(and Ibis-headed god) put him back together-The Pharaoh is Horus in human formHe must subdue Seth + keep the Egyptian Kingdom in balance- essence of Egyptian Kingship. - Old Kingdom- the Pyramids were built- Khufu(2589-2566)- built the Great Pyramid up until 1800’s A.D. it was the tallest man-made structure. Khafre- son of Khufu (2558-2532) Sphinx face may be his- sphinx represents sun god rising at dawn. Menkarre(2532-2504)- built 3rd smaller pyramid. Old Kingdom armies do appear to be standing professional armies-troops were levied and raised when neededmercenaries also may have been employed-main weapons were axes/spears -2181-2040- First Intermediate Period. -2040-1782- Middle kingdom- Senusret III united Egypt once again- secured southern border against Nubia- built Fortresses along Egyptian borders -Most famous fortress was Buhen it had 30 foot mud brick the walls, thicker at the bottom to prevent sapping - Up to 1700 Egypt + Mesopotamia isolated from one another. - Second Intermediate Period- Group of people called the Hyksos (originally Hurrians from Northern Syria) established themselves in Egypt and proclaimed a new (Non-Egyptian) dynasty (1782-1570)- They introduced the horse drawn war-chariot to Egypt. -The composite bow (made of wood and horn) becomes popular- Around this time (Mid-2nd millennium B.C.) the Hittite king Hattusilis creates a powerful state controlling central Anatolia- His successor Mursilis extended Hittite rule into Syria + led an army all the way into Mesopotamia + sacked Babylon- Hittites were to become great rivals to the Egyptian New Kingdom. _________________________________ - Egyptian New Kingdom(1570-1070) 1) Hatshepsut- one of several female Pharaohs- 1498-1483, stepmother and aunt (See board) of Thutmosis IIImarried her half-brother (T2)Hatshepsut governed Egypt in T3’s name because he was only 9 when he became pharaoh. -T1 was a new lineage (unrelated to previous Pharaohs) Hatshepsut had to keep the lineage strong: a) Used title “wife of Amon”- Intimacy with god Amon-Re (sun god) gave her more legitimacy. b) Claimed her Royal Ka (life force, soul) was masculine. c) Female Horus d) Her Statues slowly show a more masculine trend- bearded. 2) Thutmosis III (1504-1450) - hated Hatshepsut- had her images destroyed once she was dead- May have had something to do with her death Conquered Levant region- led campaigns into Syria- over 350 cities are said to have fallen to him- called the Napoleon of Ancient Egypt- “created the Egyptian Empire”. Initially, he may have led conquests to get out from Hatsepsut’s shadow and prove himself a powerful leader-but he was probably just being imperialistic-Most famous battle was at Meggido against a coalition of Syrian forces-first “well”recorded battle in history3) Akhenaten (servant of Aten) 1353 1336 - Originally named Amenhotep IVElevated the sun disk (Aten) to Preeminent status in Egyptian religion- this was a radical heresy- He was a philosopher king who was worried about the growing power of the priesthood of Amun-introduced monotheism (centered on Aten)- Sun worship- This took power away from the priests of Amun- Aten is portrayed as a solar disk whose protective rays terminated in hands holding the Ankh (symbols of eternal life)- Aten was only accessible to Akhenaten so there was no need for an intermediate priesthood- Closed Amun’s temples- Founded a new city called Akhetaten (Horizon of the sun disc)Only upper classes seem to have gone along with the new religion- common people continued polytheism. - According to the new religion the old underworld was swept aside- Now the afterlife was brightly lit by Aten who was a loving, life-giving god not a god of conquest- Soon after his death, the new religion of Akhenaten was abandoned. ________________________________ - Ramesses II -1279-1212- Most famous pharaoh- Ramesses II is in story of Exodus from Bible- After 400 years of living peacefully within Egypt- Seti I (Ramesses II’s father) enslaved the Hebrews- Forced to build temples (Not pyramids!) – He conducted huge campaigns into Syria to fight the HittitesBattle of Kadesh(1275)(show video)- Propaganda shows victory on walls of temples but really a draw, and the Egyptians almost lost- Hittite king was Muwatallis II-1259 the treaty of Kadesh was signed between Ramesses II and the new Hittite king Hattusilis III peace was promised from both sides + each state would help the other if needed- Also, the Syrian territory of Amurru switched allegiance from Egypt to Hittites- Kadesh is the best documented battle before classical Greece- 500 B.C. Warfare in the New Kingdom – Army had chariots and infantry-sword becomes popular-Infantry split into four divisions of 5000 men each- the divisions are named after the gods: Amun,Re,Ptah,Set Chariots fight in groups of 10-50 – they are the prestige weapon and are used by the nobility and royalty-they get all the attention in the accounts of battle-the infantry is rarely mentioned-chariots are led by two horses and are equipped with a composite bow, a spear/javelin, an ax, and a shield-they probably served as mobile missile platforms and were not designed to crash into the enemies ranks -1200 Sea Peoples(?) swept into Anatolia + destroyed the Hittite Empire- They also weakened Egypt- Age of Chariots ends- replaced by infantry + cavalry1000 B.C.- Egypt virtually bankrupt- So weak that foreign rulers such as the Nubians occasionally take power(747656) + Macedonians (330-31). - Minoan Greece (2000-1400)- Centered on islands of Crete and Thera- Cities not walled- No images of warfare- no weapons found - Palace civilizationsvery luxurious, elegant. - At Knossos on Crete the Queen had her own private bathroom with running water + the equivalent of a flush toiletBig trade industry with Egypt + Near East- Collapsed around 1400- No one knows why: Earthquake, Tidal wave, The Myceneans probably were a big factor in the collapse of the Minoan civilization - Mainland Greece- Earliest farmers reached Greece in 6000’s- Metalworking began 3000-2500. Greece- Not one country or kingdomMountains split landscape into plains and valleys- Communities were isolatedIndo Europeans swept in from beyond Danube/Black Sea from Central Asia/South Russia- brought chariots(2100-1900)- These invaders set up a new civilization: - Mycenean Age peaks 1500-1300 but total span 1900-1100, Greece split into a number of small but heavily administered districts- The Myceneans were the “Vikings” of the late Bronze age – They were sea raiders and conquered territories in the Aegean sea and the western coast of Anatolia – this broad them into conflict with the city of Troy – Troy controlled a major trade route from the Aegean sea into the Black sea – The Trojans grew rich off ships requiring harbor space – They were also horse breeders - Trojan War mid-13th century?- Mycenean cities fight against Troy in Asia MinorTroy was culturally connected to the Hittite empire. By 1100 Mycenean civilization collapses- Sea Peoples? - 1100-800 Dark Age- No major kingdoms or centralized governments in Greece - Iron Age Begins-1200-1000- Assyria(1350-612)- Split into Middle Assyrian period (1350-1100) We’re not going to discuss this period - But only really an empire during the Neo-Assyrian period (900-612) Political hierarchy shaped like a pyramid with king at top- His primary role was to conduct war for the benefit of the god Assur and the state- Pattern of expansion: - 1) Territories approached with Massive forces - 2) If they did not surrender immediately small cities + towns were attacked (easy targets) - 3) Once conquered the inhabitants were severely punished: tortured, raped, beheaded, flayed, and their corpses put on display- 4) If capital city still did not yield, it was put under siege- This policy was called “calculated frightfulness” - If any subjects ever tried to rebel they were severely punished: Eyes gauged out/burned alive/impaled on spikes/hands cut off- This policy was probably designed to keep other subjects in line and prevent future rebellions - Prisoners were often deported from their native lands to distant parts of the empire- This lessoned the chance of future rebellions since people were in unfamiliar lands- 4.5 million people deported- 3 Types of Political Arrangements in Empire 744-612. - 1) Vassal States- local leader remained in charge but was to deliver annual tribute. - 2) Puppet States- a local man considered to be faithful to Assyria was placed on throne. - 3) Provinces- Ruled by a governor directly under Assyria’s controlActually part of empire- Assyrian territory - ______________________________ - Kings often appointed eunuchs to high government positions so there would be no pressure or temptation for duties to be passed from father to son- Offices reverted back to king for re-assignment. - Babylonia never fully subdued. - There was religious tolerance- Huge libraries found that were kept by Assyrian kings- Assyria created a pony express- First really BIG Empire- The key to Assyrian military success may have been the successful use of specialized forces integrated together: Chariots,Cavalry,Infantry (Heavy Spearman wearing metal mail armor/Light Archers often recruited from subdued peoples),Engineers - Ashurbanipal (668-627)- was last strong Assyrian king- his sons began a civil war to succeed him + this severely weakened the empire. - Assyrian Capital- Ninevah- sacked in 612 by Neo-Babylonians- they came from the south- Another group (the Medes) came from the North Eastthey were pastoral mountain peopleAlso, tribes of Cimmerians and Scythians from the Black Sea region harassed Assyria from the North- by 610 Assyria is gone- Neo-Babylonia takes over Western Part of empirethe Medes take over Eastern part- A kingdom of Lydia was established in Western Anatolia. - 550-Cyrus (1st king of Persia) overthrew Median king and established the Persian Empire- Soon the Persians conquered Lydia and took all of Asia Minor(547-539)Cambyses (Cyrus’s son) took Egypt539 Babylonia also fell to the Persians. - In contrast to the Assyrians, the Persians embraced the cultural diversity of the inhabitants of their empire- They did not have to become “Persian”- The king of Persia had special royal agents which acted as his “eyes” and kept local powers in line- The willingness to adopt local customs and to insert the Persian king into existing traditions of rule made it possible to bring unity to this vast empire- - The main Persian deity was Ahuramazda. - ______________________________ - Archaic Greece- (800-479 B.C.) - Iliad/ Odyssey- long oral traditionFinally written down by Homer(750-700) reflects societal values of Dark Ages + early Archaic Period. The following list distinguished the civilized Greeks from the “barbarians” of foreign lands: 1) Hospitality to strangers 2) Gift exchange 3) Friendship ties 4) Marriage ties 5) Respect for gods 6) Agriculture - No coins until 600’s- wealth was measured in cattle + land. - Status was key- King’s rule was not absolute- could be challenged- ex. Achilleus’ strike- Assembly- Nobles gave opinion to king- Staff/scepter passed around only holder could speak- king first among equals. - Colonization- all over Mediterranean - Olympics-(776)- Greeks met + exchanged ideas- spread Greek culture- Unity of culture among citystates-also unity of religion - Oikos- Household- included servants, slaves, soldiers, lesser nobles- Herodotus- concerned with culture as well as politics- sees the Persian wars as a cultural clash between Democratic Greeks (who have allegiance to laws) + Persians (who have blind allegiance to an absolute king)/ also has supernatural element (Hubris, Ate, Nemesis: Rise and Fall of power/(omens important) History- comes from historia (inquiry) not his story- wrote 430. - Hoplite Tactics- In Archaic Period!! - Hypothesis One- Soldiers fought in loose formation- light troops (poor)+ missile weapons present on battlefield – Hoplites fought as individuals as well as in groups- Not everyone equipped the same. - Hypothesis Two- only middle class farmers- All armed alike- Argive shield, spear, bronze chest plateFought in tight rigid phalanx, each man protected by part of the shield of the man to his right- No light troopsNo missile weapons. - ______________________________ - Works + Days (written by Hesiod) shows friction between common people + local nobility- during Archaic period power shifted from nobility to common people- steps: - 1) Coinage introduced - 2) More complex economy + trade - 3) Nobles began to lose power as trade became important - Aristocracy based on birth began to be replaced by Aristocracy based on wealth. - Poor free men strove for changeTrade centralized in towns- Agriculture less important- A new town population starts growing- leads to growth of city-state. - Natural landscape of Greece has a lot of mountains with valleys in between- city-states grew in valleys. - Sparta- 3 classes of people: - Helots -in 8/7th century enslaved the Messenians (reduced them to Helot status) Helots did all farming - Perioccoi- craftsmen, merchantsgave military service if required- Not part of Spartan Government- lived outside of actual city - Spartiates- could focus purely on fighting- Conservative, paranoid society- Feared Helot revolts constantly- - Agogi- Age 7 encouraged to be tough, to steal, beaten if caught- Age 12 adopted by 18-20 year oldInstitution of Homosexuality - Didn’t use coins- Men lived in communal quarters- Not with wives- Krypteia- secret police- allowed to kill helots- kept helots “in-line”. - Some Helots served as light-armed troops- could gain freedom if they fought well. - Sick infants left out to die (?)- very conservative – didn’t like to take risks – concerned only with Sparta - xenophobic – fear of strangers - Culture of simplicity-no luxury, no coinage - Women enjoyed rights- encouraged to be strong- breed for the state-they could own land - Lycurgus- 885 B.C. (Myth?) Gave laws to Spartans - Spartans claimed to be descendents of Heracles - __________________________ - Spartan Government: 1) Kings (2) commanded armyMonarchy aspect-chosen by assembly- appointed for life. 2) Council- 30 members- criminal court- only nobles could be elected (by assembly) Aristocratic elementserved for life. 3) Assembly- every Spartiate over 30elected other officials- Democratic element 4) Ephors (5)- served one yearguarded rights of people- civil courtSpartan Government was a mixed constitution- but really oligarchy. - Athens- Attica was unified as a result of a synoecism- (this is when a group of independent towns/cities unite politically or physically into a single state)- surrounding communities had surrendered independence to Athens and with her formed a single stateAll male citizens (30,000) could voteNot slaves, women, foreigners (Metics). - Evolution of Athenian Democracy: - - - Originally many small farmers were dependent on wealthy landowners (feudal system) Solon- 594- became Archon instituted Democratic reforms of Solon: A) Cancelled all debts- small farmers no longer obligated to wealthy landowners B) You could not be enslaved for debt C) 4 classes based on wealth (Not Birth) Peisistratus- Tyrant- 560-527- good ruler- people liked him. His son Hippias ruled harshly- a group of Democrats led by Cleisthenes appealed to Sparta for help overthrowing Hippias. 510- Hippias was exiled- eventually went to Persia. Reforms of Cleisthenes: He reorganized how citizens votedcreated 10 tribes- each tribe had citizens from 3 different regions of Attica- City, Coast, Inland- like a 3 layer cake- The system ensured that various people of different interests had to unite as a tribe (No local community interests). Athenian Government: Boule- 500 men (50 from each tribe – each group of 50 was called a prytaneis) members picked by lotteryserved one year- Boule was supreme administrative authority of statecontrolled finances of state- conducted foreign negotiations- Initiated laws + sent them to Assembly for votePrepared all business to be presented before the Assembly- Each group of 50 (Prytaneis) led Boule for 1/10 of yearAssembly- All 30,000 voters - met at pynx-legislate Generals- Elected by Assembly- there were 10 generals Ostracism- A means to eliminate conflict + gridlock- Assembly inscribed name of individual they wanted out- loser was exiled for 10 years- kept citizenship + property. Athens was the opposite of Sparta in many ways – They welcomed foreigners into their city – Athenians were enterprising, bold capitalists who tended to take risks in order to make a profit – They enjoyed luxury and being rich- Women had very few rights in Athenian society-they were told who to marry and couldn’t own land Persian Wars- After fall of Lydia, Persia conquers Asiatic Greece- Subjugated cities obligated to serve in Persian army, but no restrictions were placed on commerce- Ionian Greek cities were left alone as long as they paid tribute + provided military troops- Many Ionian cities were ruled by Tyrants who liked and were supported by Persian rule522- Darius takes over Persian Empirehe conquers Thrace- Macedonia acknowledges allegiance to Darius. Part of the Persian system was the support of local tyrants- there was widespread hatred of these tyrants who owed their position to Persia. Aristogoras was tyrant of Miletus- He fell out of favor with the Persians and in order to regain his power he decided to lead a widespread revolt of the Ionian Greeks against Persia- He gave up his tyranny to gain widespread support of the Ionian people. He went to Sparta to ask for aid from King Cleomenes- When he was refused he went to Athens + they agreed to help- Eretria also agreed to help _____________________________ Strategy – your plan to win a war- what you do before you see the enemy Tactics – your plan to win a battle-what you do while you are fighting Athens sent 20 ships/ Eretria sent 5. After Sardis was burned down, the Athenians + Eretrians retreated back to Greece + the Ionian revolt is put down by Darius but he allows Democracies to be set up in many Ionian states as a concession- Darius now wants revenge against Athens + Eretria492- Mardonius sent to re-establish Persian Hegemony over Thrace + Macedonia- afterwards he intended to punish Athens + Eretria but his fleet was destroyed in a storm off the Athos PromontoryHippias (exiled Athenian tyrant) urges Darius to launch another attack490- Datis/ Artaphernes led another expedition- went to Eretria + burned it down- enslaved inhabitants- they landed at MarathonAfter victory- Spirit of Athens soaredSparta came to visit battle field- New confidence + ambition for Athens- 489- Cleomenes + Demaratus quarrel whether to interfere in a fight between Athens + Aegina - Demaratus declared illegitimate as king + fled to Persia. Naval power- Trireme- 3 levels of rowers- 170 oarsmen, 10 marines (hoplites), 4 archers, 16 crew. Bow to side ramming Kyklos- defensive formation- see board. Periplous- flanking attack- see board. Deikplous- cutting through line + ram from behind- see board. Themistocles- 483-482- Huge silver mine discovered at Laurion- wanted to spend $ on building a fleet- Aristides wanted to distribute $ to all citizens- Aristides ostracized- $ spent on building 200 ships. 490-480- Darius dies- Xerxes becomes king- Planned land + sea attack against Greece- dug a canal through Athos promontory- showed power + facilitated contact between Navy + Army. -481- Sparta + Athens hold PanHellenic conference (first instance of Pan- Hellenic Policy) at Isthmus of Corinth- discussed matters of resistance- 31 city- states took oath to resist Persia- Thessaly + most Boeotian states (ex-Thebes) didn’t attendThessaly would be invaded first + would be hopeless to withstand Persia alone- Oligarchs of Thebes were sympathetic to Persia- Medize- join Persian side- Sparta elected leader of both land + sea- Political feuds buriedexiled leaders recalled- Wooden wall prophesyA) Acropolis would survive (protected by wooden fence) B) Navy would save the Greeks - Themistocles convinced Athenians it was B - Persians advance through ThessalyNext point of defense is Thermopylae. - Spartans may have picked Thermopylae due to obligation to Athens + importance of Athenian Navy to overall defense- May have only sent 300 since their hearts were really set on a defense at the Isthmus- They claimed Leonidias’ small army was only an advance guard (4000 Peloponnesians, 700 Thespians, 400 Thebans, 1000 Phocaeans and a bunch of Helots) Greek Navy moves to Artemesium (North Coast of Euboea) - A storm destroys 200 Persian ships since there were too many to find safe harbors- The Persians send 200 more ships around Euboea to surround Greek Navy + these are also destroyed in another storm. - Battle of Artemesium fought simultaneously with Battle of Thermopylae- After Thermopylae defeat, Greek Navy sails to Attica (378 ships) - Themistocles convinces Athenians to abandon Attica- Persians occupy Boeotia + Attica- Athenians flee to Island of Salamis- Xerxes arrives at Athens- kills small acropolis garrison- Temples plundered + burned - Greek Army building wall at Isthmus. -Two strategies available to Greeks 1) Send fleet to Isthmus alongside armycould retreat + support army if necessary- At Salamis if they lost they couldn’t retreat- trap- Opposed by Athenians, Aeginteans, Megarians (All north of Isthmus) 2) Fight in narrows of SalamisThemistocles convinces Eurybiadas this plan would not allow the superior numbers + speed of Persian fleet to make a difference - Big Debate- Themistocles threatened to remove Athenian fleet (200 ships) and settle Athenians in southern Italy if his plan was not adopted. - Persians move into position- Greeks panic and are flip-flopping to move fleet to Isthmus. - Themistocles’ trick- Greeks win at Salamis- Xerxes + Navy flee back to Ionia- Persian Army under Mardonius stays. - 479- Persians winter in Thessaly- offer peace deal to Athens who refuse- love Democracy + freedom. - 479- Spring- Persians invade Attica again- Sparta (at first) doesn’t send helpAthenians must evacuate Attica again! Sparta eventually sends whole army to Plataea where the combined Greek forces defeat the Persian army under Mardonius- A few days later the Greeks defeat the Persians once again along the Ionian coast (at Mycale) and many Ionian cities are freed from Persian Hegemony. 479-431- Prelude to Peloponnesian War. - Thucydides- Main source for Peloponnesian War- No myths or legends- Just ‘The Facts’- No culturejust political History- 2 Main Themes: A) Morality + Justice thrown out window- Advantage is what dictates policy B) Erosion of civilized behavior + honor in times of war - He was a commander in Thrace but was banished (424) for losing a battle- After Battle of Mycale Ionian cities were freed from Persian rule- Sparta went home. - Athens continued war against PersiaDetermined to recover more territory + corn routes to Black Sea. 478-477 - Delian League formed - Ionian cites place themselves under protection of Athens- Voluntary enrollment (at first). - Objects: 1) protect Ionian cities from Persian reconquest 2) Gain vengeance/ plunder to offset expenses + losses to Greece during Persian War - Oath of loyalty taken by all members (lasts forever) - unusual - Each city pays Athens tribute $- a few supply ships instead - At first each member had equal vote on policy but Athens had great influence since they were doing the protecting1) Navy- citizens row 2) Democracy- citizens vote 3) Empire- Navy allows empire to exist - All connected- See Board. - Shortly after Plataea - Walls are built around Athens from Persian rubbleThemistocles’ plan - 470’s- political schism- Themistocles (pro- Persian/ anti- Sparta) vs. Cimon (pro- Sparta/ anti- Persian) 472- Themistocles ostracized- went to Argos (traditional enemy of Sparta) + continued anti-Spartan propagandaAccused of plotting with Persia- Both Athens + Sparta sent soldiers to arrest him- he fled + eventually landed in Persia! - 470’s to 460’s- Confederacy of Delos (Delian League) becomes harsh + imperialistic: 1) 472- Carystos- subjugated + forced to join 2) 469- Naxos- wants out of leagueforced to rejoin 3) 465- Thasos- Had mines on mainland Athens wanted them- revolted- Cimon defeats Thasian Navy- walls torn downforced to give up claim to mines 464- Helots revolt- Sparta asks for Athenian aid- Cimon sends army but shortly after they are sent home- Sparta does not like the adventurous + revolutionary spirit of the AtheniansHUGE insult to Athens- Cimon’s policy is disgraced- 461- Cimon ostracized. 461- Pericles takes over- Anti-Spartan policy instituted- Alliance with Sparta ended + alliance with Argos beginsPericles institutes pay for government jobs (offices) so poor people could afford to quit their job for a year + serve in Boule or other offices- Big Democratic reform 458- Long walls built to vital port of Piraeus- protects vital Navy + Commercial fleet 454- Delian treasury moved to Athens- Athens no longer consulting other members on policy- No more voting Persia no longer a threat by 449- According to Plutarch (Not Thucydides) – Pericles stages Panhellenic conference to discuss: 1) rebuilding temples in Athens 2) Paying gods for Persian defeat 3) Clearing sea of Pirates _______________________________ Peloponnesian city-states refused to come- Pericles used the meeting as an excuse to maintain Delian League so Athens could use money to rebuild temples, to maintain its fleetHe reasoned the temples had been burned in the common cause so they could be rebuilt by common fundsSince Athens was still protecting its allies they could use tribute $ however they wished- Many Athenians were against this policy but Pericles was too popularMassive rebuilding program gave jobs to many poor- (Parthenon, Erecthium) Delian League gets even more imperialistic Pericles starts Clerachies- Sent poor Athenians to allied lands- took away land from allies- helped keep hold on allies. 440-439- Samos revolts + is subjugated - Eventually all allies forced to use Athenian coinage under threat of deathEconomic Dominance of Athens empire furthered the extension of tradePeloponnesian War 431-404- Ultimate Cause- Spartan fear of growing Athenian power Proximate Causes: A) Conflict between Corinth + Corcyra- Athens sides with Corcyra- Sparta sides with Corinth B) Athens lays siege to Potidaea(A Corinthian colony) C) Megara excluded from all Athenian Ports_______________________________ Initially, war is conflict between sea power (Athens + its allies = whale) and land power (Sparta + its allies = elephant) Athens and its allies are the Delian league/ Sparta and its allies are called the Peloponnesian league - Spartan army raids Attica each year but Athenians hide behind their walls + aren’t badly affected- Meanwhile the Athenian fleet sails around the Peloponnese + raids the coastal towns. 430- Plague breaks out in AthensPericles dies the next year 429- Cleon (Hawk pro-war) + Nicias (Dove- Peace Party) rise to prominence 428- Mytilene revolts- when revolt is put down a big debate is held as to what to do with Mytilenians-Cleon- Death- They deserve itenslave women and children. Diodotus- Death only to leaders of revolt- This is NOT mercy, but what is best for Athens- Justice Not the issue(executing all the males would actually be just) It will be easier to defeat future rebellions if they show moderation now/continue getting paid 425- Sphacteria- Cleon boasts he can capture or kill Spartan Garrison on island in 20 days- He does it using light-armed troops and archersCleon’s influence soars- Spartan image of invincibility is shattered- 120 full Spartiates surrender. - Cleon begins policy of land conquest (contrary to Pericles’ strategy) Athenians lose at Delium (424) and in Thrace- Cleon killed in 422- Truce declared between Athens + Sparta but the Peloponnesian allies don’t recognize it415- Sicilian Expedition- Alcibiades has risen to great power- he pushes for expedition- Nicias against it: 1) closer enemies at hand 2) Sicily hard to retain even if conquered 3) Athens can’t afford to squander resources 4) Alcibiades motivated by personal ambition - Nicias says 60 triremes not enoughexpedition will fail- So people vote for 100 triremes (his plan back fired) - People carried away with dreams of a western empire- People elected Nicias in charge of expedition (mistake #1). - Eve of Expedition- Hermes statues are mutilated- Alcibiades accused since he was involved in Mystery cults- Trial delayed - Expedition leaves for Sicily with Alcibiades 30,000 men. - When they got to Sicily, Alcibiades was recalled to stand trial (Mistake #2) - He escapes + is condemned to death- Alcibiades goes to SPARTA- tells them to take two actions: 1) Send a Spartan general to Syracuse to organize defense 2) Occupy Decelea in Attica- deny Athens use of silver mines- - He may have wanted the war to turn against Athens so he could come to the rescue as a tyrant - Sparta sends Gylippus to SicilyCorinth also sends ships - Meanwhile (414) Syracuse under siege - Athenians build wall to cut off supplies from inland - Athens already controls the harbor- 2 attempts at counter wall are thwartedSyracuse in despair + prepare to surrender- Nicias, in premature elation, neglects to finish the wall around Syracuse (Mistake #3) - All thoughts of surrender are abandoned when word gets out that Gylippus is coming- He gathers army north of Syracuse + marches to the high ground above the city + captures it- He immediately begins a 3rd counter wall which is successfully completedSyracuse can now get supplies Syracusans gain control of shore of harbor- Athenian ships become water logged + slow- Syracusans redesign ships for bow to bow rammingSyracusans block harbor with bunch of ships chained together- Athenian fleet is destroyed in harbor battle. - Athenians flee overland- 23,000 killed/ 7,000 enslaved. - Athens at all time low- Meanwhile Alcibiades flees Sparta + goes to Persia- came under suspicion of sleeping with King Agis’ wife- In Persia, plots to ally Persia with Athens so Athenians will take him back with Persian backing… - But plan doesn’t work- instead Sparta allies with Persia- Treaty of Miletus (412). - Sparta sells out Asiatic Greeks- Sparta recognized right of Persian king to reclaim Ionian cities- In return Persia agrees to fight alongside Sparta- Sparta now has a fleet! - After Sicily disaster Athens is shaken- Navy sent to Samos to prevent Ionian cities from revolting- Navy (Democratic element) not in AthensOligarchs in Athens seize control and dissolve Democracy-411- Set up council of 400 oligarchs- But fleet rejects new government and elects Alcibiades as general- He abolishes 400 oligarchs and Democracy is reestablished_____________________________ 410-407- Athens’ navy rebounds- wins several victories against Spartan/Persian fleet. 406- Huge Athenian victory at Arginusae- But Athenian captains fail to rescue some ship wrecked sailors due to a storm. 8 Generals (including Pericles’ son) are executed- crowd thirsted for vengeance-danger of radical democracy 405- Aegospotomai (goat river) Spartan commander Lysander captures Athenian fleet on shoredestroys most of it- Athens surrenders- war over- Corinth + Thebes wanted Athens destroyed but Sparta could use Athens as a buffer against them so walls were torn down, fleet limited to 12 ships but Athens was allowed to remain Rise of Thebes 379-378- Thebes allies with AthensDemocratic government installedOligarchs killed- Ascendancy of Thebes- Two Generals (Pelopidas and Epaminondas) revolutionized Battle Tactics- See boardSacred Band - Crushed Spartans at Leuctra 371 –Spartan prestige destroyed- Thebes invades Peloponnese- Megalopolis founded (Synoecism) Helots freedSparta now severely handicappedEconomic/social system destroyed Thebes crushed Spartans again at Mantinea (362) but Epaminondas is killed at Mantinea + Theban power crumbles371-362- Theban Hegemony over Greece- While Thebes was on top, a young prince from Macedonia (Philip II) was sent to Thebes as a diplomatic hostagehe learned about tactics from Epaminondas ________________________________ - Rise of Macedon- 358 Philip II becomes King of Macedon- asserted authority over all of Macedonia + western Thrace- Over next 20 years by use of politics and a highly trained professional standing army he came to dominate the rest of Greece – Alexander born in 356 to Olympia (bride of Philip) Charonea-338- Greeks unite to fight Philip- Theban Sacred Band annihilated See boardCorinthian league establishedMacedonian hegemony over all Greece- Sparta refuses to join (left in isolation) – Friction develops between Alexander,/Olympia and his father Philip – Philip takes a full blooded Macedonian bride named Cleopatra (not the famous one) – Olympia was from Epirus and was not Macedonian – the threat of a full blooded successor presented competition for Alexander as to whom would be the next King - Philip assassinated in 336, Alexander becomes KingOlympia roasts Cleopatra’s son and she is killed-Olympia will tolerate no competition for the throneShortly after Alexander becomes king, Thracian tribes (sensing weakness) become hostile- While Alex is in Thrace fighting them, a rumor of his death sweeps over Greece- This causes a rebellion led by Athens + Thebes- Thebes would not surrender when Alex arrives With his army + Thebes is totally destroyed- A warning to other Greeks. Philip II originally planned to invade Persian empire- Alex follows the planPretext- Revenge for Persian wars - Liberate Ionian cities - Real Reason- Glory, Power, Treasure, love of conquest Strategic Genius 1) Secured Greece/ Thrace before leaving 2) Secured Ionian Coast (to neutralize Persian fleet) 3) Secured Mesopotamia before India Always secured Rear! _______________________________ _ Parmenio- 2nd in command- older general close with Philip II Hephaestion- Best friend Seleucus, Ptolemy, Perdiccas, Craterus- all major generals Initial worst enemy was Memnon- a Greek mercenary from Rhodes fighting for Persia- suggested scorched earth policy Persian strength was horsemen + archers 334- Battle of Granicus- after battle, Alex secures Ionian Coast 333- Memnon dies from disease. Gordian Knot episode in Asia Minor – whoever unties knot will be master of Asia (great propaganda) - Alexander cuts knot - Issus- Alexander’s right Flank destroys Persian left flank but he doesn’t carry the pursuit too far- He turns back to rescue his own left flank which is in trouble- Darius fleesDarius’ wife + sisters are captured but treated well-- Alexander wants Persians to embrace him (as king of Asia)- does not want to antagonize them-he does not want to ‘conquer’ them-he wants to blend Persian and Greek culture- Hellenistic Age – Greek culture is spread throughout the Persian territory. Siege of Tyre- Great example of siege warfare.Alexander goes to Egypt- founds Alexandria- welcomed as liberatorgoes to Libyan desert to see oracle at Siwa- hailed as son of Zeus331- Gaugamela- captures Babylon, Susa, + Persepolis (Burnt down intentional or accidental?) - led to revolts in Eastern empire-- Darius fled again after Gaugamelaeventually he is assassinated by his own general (Bessus) Alexander captures Bessus + executes him______________________________ Bactrian years- 331-326- guerrilla warfare- Each day a new day of discovery- Alexander is glue that held army together- Alex starts becoming unstable/paranoid- starts drinking a lotSplit in officer coreYoung- Craterus, Hephastion, Ptolemy- Cavalry core- young guys all promoted after death of Philotas + Parmenio. Older-Parmenio- common soldier of phalanx- the grunt- Phalanx base- old style. A) Philotas (Parmenio’s son) executed for plotting against AlexParmenio also executed B) Cleitus killed while Alex was drunk C) Proskynesis (Bow +kissing at feet) introduced- led to great resentment among Greek soldiers – Greeks only bowed to gods Hermoleus spears boar (took away Alexander’s glory) and is whipped. Alex heads east to Indus RiverBeyond Persian empire- crosses Indus river Battle of Hydaspes River-326- fights against King Porus. Men finally mutiny + demand that Alexander turns the army around Alex returns to Babylon via Gedrosian Desert- very harsh, a lot of men die- sends some men on Naval route led by Nearchus. Alexander dies (probably of a fever) in Babylon in 323. Successors- divide his kingdom(323-281) Lysimachus- Thrace Antigonus- Asia Minor Selecus- Syria, Near-East, Persia Ptolemy-Egypt 301- Battle of Ipsus- Antigonus killed by coalition (Lysimachus + Selecus) they split Asia Minor 281- Selecus kills Lysimachus + takes over Asia Minor - Power in Ancient world shifts to Western Mediterranean- ROME The Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire 753 BC – Traditional foundation of Rome – Roman history is divided into 3 main phases: 1) 753 - 509 – Royal Period – Rome ruled by Kings (seven) first four were Latin, last three were Etruscan 2) 509 - 31 – Roman Republic a)509 – 264 Early Republic – Conquest of Italy b) 264 – 133 Middle Republic – Conquest of Mediterranean/world c) 133-31- Late Republic – Civil wars and collapse of the Republic 3) 31BC -476 AD – Roman Imperial Period (period of Emperors) a) 31 BC – 284 AD – Principate – Imperial system founded by first Emperor (Augustus) facade of Senatorial power/republic b) 284 - 476 – Dominate – Autocratic system founded by Emperor Diocletian (Dominus Latin for master) ruled like a King with a lot of ceremony Post-Roman History: 476 - 1453 – Roman Empire continues in East as the Byzantine Empire – In the West, the Empire is replaced by Germanic kingdoms Four Sources of Roman (& other Ancient) history 1) Written Accounts – Polybius, Livy, Tacitus, Plutarch, Suetonius, Ammianus, Procopius etc. – reflect male-biased upper class – copied (changed) over time. 2) Physical Remains – ruins, artifacts 3) Inscriptions – original not copied – epigraphic evidence 4) Coinage – numismatic evidence Founding of Rome – Early Myths + Traditions 59 B.C. – 17 A.D. – Livy accepted a tradition going back to Aristotle which explained historical events by the characters of the persons involved – Livy relates events as moral episodes designed to bring out the character of the leading figures in the present – Past events provide models of social and individual behavior (good + bad) on how to act in the present Livy doesn’t like the present state of Roman affairs- He blames it on moral decline – continually looks at distant past to demonstrate the honor, virtue, bravery that Romans used to practice On the other hand, Livy shows great pride that Rome has risen to become the greatest nation in the World – Although leery of Augustus he admits that Augustus brought peace to the World by land and sea (after the chaos of the civil wars) Tension between evils of Modern Rome and Dawn of New Golden Age. 1000 – 900 B.C.- Migrants arrived from Balkans and settled in North Italy – (Spina, Bologna, Tarquinia) – Those people absorbed native populations and their culture was called Villanovans 700 B.C. – A new wave of migration occurred – These new migrants (called Etruscans) had a taste for Greek and Phoenician Artistic styles, new techniques for metal work, and were city builders – brought a new language too – these new elements transformed the Villanovans into Etruscans – Poor simple agricultural people into an urban nation of craftsman and traders – Traded a lot with Greece, Egypt and Phoenicia – Salt was an essential commodity to the Etruscans and could only be obtained at the big salt beds at the mouth of the Tiber river – The saltroute led from these salt beds up the Tiber through Rome – Rome thus grew from an agricultural community into a major commercial center Etruscan influence is evident in Rome by 625 – 600 – ex. Rome pottery and Drainage systems – small groups of Etruscans set up communities in Rome – Rome became mixed population but the superior skills and abilities of Etruscans dominated 616 – Etruscans gain upper hand – Etruscans kings gain throne 1) Central Market place created – Forum , communal buildings 2) Primitive religion replaced by Greek-like pantheon 3) Pastoralism- Agriculture 4) Greek/Trojan heroes present in Etruscan Art – Aeneas connection- kings had board of advisors drawn from leading families (eventually became the republican senate) Latin Kings: 1) Romulus 2) Numa – very involved in religious organization and reform 3) 673 – 642 - Tullus Hostilius – warrior king – destroyed Alba Longa and transferred its people to Rome 4) 642 – 617- Ancus Marcius Tarquins (Etruscans come to Rome) 5) 616 – 579- Lucius Tarquinius Priscus – Gained control peacefully – established horse racing games and drainage system 6) 578 – 535- Servius Tullus – Tarquinius’s son-in-law – A) Military Reforms – hoplite warfare – property classes introduced to military B) Built stone wall around Rome for protection 7) 534 – 510- Tarquinius Superbus (the proud) – Portrayed as an evil tyrant – Built Cloaca Maxima – allowed forum to be drained and built upon Etruscans kings brought Rome from village to city – Built Temple of Jupiter on Capitoline Hill Etruscan influences: Triumphs – Parades to celebrate military victories – booty and prisoners would be displayed Gladiatorial combat- Originally performed as funeral rites Kingship in Rome not Dynastic – conferred by the senate to individuals without regard to family claims – kings didn’t claim to be divine – had extreme power- right to command unlimited – symbols of imperium (power to command) were the fasces (axe [right of execution] and rods [right of beating]) End of Period of Kings (End of Etruscan Rome) 509 - Rape of Lucretia by Tarquinius Superbus’ son provokes a conspiracy of nobles led by Brutus who overthrew Superbus – Superbus secures help of Lars Porsenna to recapture Rome – Despite Livy’s version, Porsenna does capture Rome but fails to restore Superbus – Shortly after Porsenna is forced to abandon Rome to deal with Latin revolts elsewhere – Government of the Roman Republic 1) After kings were expelled, the leading land owning families took over many of the kings’ duties – they became the Senate – Senate couldn’t legislate, only advise – Served for life – 2) Consuls (2) – held imperium (power to command) A- Convene Senate B- Preside over senatorial meeting C- Bring proposals to Senate D- Raise and command armies E- One year term Praetors (4) – lesser imperium – one year term Dictator – only elected in times of extreme crisis – 6 month term – absolute power – By early 2nd Century B.C. this office was no longer used Pro-Consul - imperium extended beyond a year (instead of Dictator) –– Pro-Consuls served in provinces – Once he left his territory his imperium ended and he was a private citizen and expected to disband his army 3) People – the people legislated via assemblies – A) Centuriate Assembly – Older assembly – 193 units – citizens assigned to units based on wealth and age – same grouping as military– voting ended when majority (97) voted one way – Rich units got to vote first so rich had more power to legislate – a) elected consuls – b) voted on war and peace Early Republican history was dominated by an internal “struggle of orders” between patricians (clubbish privileged families) and plebeians ( less privileged, excluded) – this struggle of orders led to the creation of the : B) Tribal Assembly – 35 tribes determined by location not wealth– patricians excluded – voting stopped at majority (18) – couldn’t debate or discuss legislation – just yes/no vote – had to vote in person – led by Tribunes of Plebs (10) Tribunes proposed legislation – all legislation passed was binding (even without senatorial approval) – 287 B.C. laws passed by Tribal Assembly binding on statute with/without senatorial approvalHOWEVER, it was still tradition to get senatorial approval before legislation was sent to the assembly – Tribunes had absolute veto power – could prevent senatorial decrees from reaching assemblies – Tribunes were inviolate (no one could physically touch them ) – The tribunes were created as champions of the people in 494 Rome had no written constitution – powers were based on precedent and tradition (mas maiorum) Cursus Honorum – the path of political ambition for many wealthy young Roman menQuastor > Aedile or Tribune > Praetor > Consul > Censor If you have a consul in your family tree (an ancestor), then your family is considered a noble family Typical Path of Legislation: A) Consuls convened senate and put proposal to it – Senate votes by physically moving to one side or another B) Senatorial Decree was issued (just advice) C) Tribunes debated decree in a series of informal meetings D) Decree brought to tribal council (since this was natural choice due to Plebs) and yes/no vote taken SPQR – Senatus Romanus populasque – Senate and People of Rome Within the senate, some families enjoyed greater political power than others– long term cooperation between elite families (Good Ole’ boy network) few dozen influential families – Oligarchy factors sustained by adoption/inter marriage ex.- from 250B.C. – 50 B.C. only eleven men were elected consul who didn’t belong to one of those influential families – They were called Novus Homo (new men) In reality Rome was an oligarchy – the senate had the greatest political powerPatronage – unequal arrangement between the influential and the uninfluential – favors granted by patron to client (a member of the assembly) who had repayment obligation – secured success in election and to get favorable legislation passed using patronage – 3 Key Features of Rome 1) In the absence of written constitution, the republic relied on a deep respect for tradition and precedent – Politicians acted in ways sanctioned by tradition rather than prescribed by law A) Libertas – freedom of political action, freedom from domination by a monarch – Natural hatred for kings B) Concordia – maintaining political civility by avoiding serious conflict via compromise and a willingness to back down if faced with resolute challenges 2) Consular lists leave no doubt that a relatively few leading families enjoyed the lion’s share of political prominence in the republic 3) The republic was essentially a city-state system of government, a small-scale affair – conducted with face-to-face meetings and assemblies where physical presence was required – This was a huge problem when forced to govern a huge empire Chronology continues: 496 – Lake Regillus – Latins (allied together) vs. Romans – Fought in Latin territory suggests that Rome was the aggressor – No clear cut winner – External threat of Volsci and Aequi (from Central Appenine Mountains) led to Treaty of Cassius in 493 – created the Latin league - mutual aid between Latins and Romans to defeat mountain tribes – Fact that Latins try to break away suggests Latin League may have been like Delian League involuntary 474 – Etruscan civilization declining at hands of Latins, Greek and Gauls Veii – Town 12 miles from Rome – Competitor for control of Tiber river – 510-390 on and off fighting – Finally in 390 after a 10 year siege Veii is destroyed – Survivors sold as slaves – booty taken – land becomes Roman Public land Gauls take territory from Etruscans – start pushing into Etruria – City of Clusium asks for help from Rome – Romans decide to intervene and are annihilated at Allia 390 - 387 – Gauls take Rome except for Capitoline Hill – Finally, they are bribed to leave – Romans forever hold a deep hatred for Gauls – As a result of this defeat Roman prestige plummets and Latins break away from Latin League treaty 340-338 – Latin Wars – Roman Confederation replaces Latin League – Terms of Roman Confederation: 1) Each Latin city now allied with Rome not with one another 2) Latins required to supply troops – Rome gains military control 3) No independent foreign policy allowed – But domestic issues are still sovereign – Rome didn’t have to deal with economics of the allies – Can’t escape from confederation Samnite Wars (326 – 290) – Compania is at stake – rich agricultural land – Claudine Forks (321?) major disgrace for Romans – Forced to surrender and go under the yoke – stripped of armor and weapons officers in charge were sent to Samnites in disgrace – This war may have been the time when the Romans changed its tactical structure (phalanx to manipular legion)– they may have copied the looser fighting style of the Samnites who were used to fighting in rough, uneven mountain terrain Eventually Romans allied with companion towns to throw out Samnite influence (even though during Latin war Rome and Samnites were allies) Roman Army changed from hoplites/phalanx to manipular legion sometime during 4th Century- probably after the Samnite wars 1) velites – light-armed troops 2) hastati – younger soldiers armed with javelins, scutum, and short sword (gladius) 3) principes – soldiers in their prime armed like the hastati 4) triarii – older veterans – armed with spears and scutum Pyrrhic War (285 – 272) – Thurii appeals for help to Rome against Lucania – Thurii didn’t ask the city of Tarentum for aid even though it was the major power in southern Italy– Rome defeats Lucanians but Tarentum went to war with Rome since Rome was in their territory – Tarentum appeals to Pyrrhus of Epirus for help – Phalanx vs. Legion- Pyrrhus wins several costly battles against the Romans but his losses are too much and he travels to Sicily to fight Carthaginians- he later returns to Italy and is defeated by the Romans- He goes back to Greece and is killed in a city riot when a woman drops a piece of pottery (or a brick/roof tile ?) on his head from a window – as a result of the Pyrrhic wars, Rome takes over all of southern Italy Punic Wars Punic is a latin word for Phoenician – Carthage was originally a Phoenician colony from Tyre – founded in 814 BC – Came into prominence around 600 – Carthage brought other Phoenician colonies under its control – conquered Sardinia, Corsica, ½ Sicily (west) – Allied with Numidians in Africa – Carthage established a maritime empire (empire based on sea-power) – Trade was vital for Carthage – powerful navy protected merchant fleet and Carthaginian interests throughout the Western Mediterranean – Don’t know much about Carthaginian government – mixed constitution- they didn’t have standard army, they used mercenaries First Punic War- (264 - 241) – Mercenaries called Mamertines (son’s of Mars) took over Sicilian city of Messana – They preyed on neighbors’ lands (Land Pirates) – Hiero II of Syracuse decided to put an end to the Mamertines activities and laid siege to Messana – Mamertines appeal to both Cars and Romans for help – Cars respond first – Romans were debating whether to help – (Earlier at Rhegium they actually executed mercenaries who had taken over that city) – Senate lets people decide whether to help – Straits of Messana were strategically very important – people decided to help (greed , loot) motives for war: 1) Defensive imperialism 2) Territorial Acquisitiveness Cars arrive at Messana first but they abandon the city when the Romans arrive – Car leader is crucified for this blunder – Cars try to retake Messana and war begins – (264) – Rome protects Messana against Syracuse – Syracuse switches sides and joins Romans – Romans lay siege to Agrigentum (a Greek city reinforced by Cars) – Agrigentum falls and the Romans decide to kick Cars out of all Sicily – Rome decides to build a Navy – until now they relied on South Italian Greeks for Naval Power – They build 100 quinqueremes 260 – First major Naval battle at Mylae – the corvus boarding bridge is used very effectively 257 – Romans decide to invade Africa Consul Regulus leads Roman forces 256 – Naval battle of Ecnomus – Romans blunder into victory – Romans invade Africa – Regulus defeats Cars – Cars ask for surrender terms but they are too harsh (abandon Sardinia, Sicily, get rid of fleet) – Cars are forced to keep fighting – Some say Regulus wanted to win in battle and purposely gave harsh terms – He wanted glory (Hubris) – Meanwhile a Spartan guest named Xantihippus convinces the Cars to allow him to command their troops – He uses cavalry and elephants very effectively and destroys the Roman army at the Bagradas river in 255 – Romans decide to fight only in Sicily from this point (255) 249 – Naval battle at Drepana – only Naval victory for Carthage during the entire war – Claudius Pulcher (Roman Commander) ignores omens and kicks sacred chickens into water – gods are angered and Romans lose battle – 247 – Hamilcar Barca arrives in Sicily to command the car troops – by far the best commander of the entire war – uses fleet to raid the Italian coast – waged guerilla campaign in Sicily – did not have the manpower to defeat Romans in a big battle 241- Final Battle (Aegates Islands) – Car Navy is destroyed – Hamilcar forced to surrender and returns to Africa – He was never defeated Rome emerges from the first Punic War as clearly more powerful than Carthage Terms of Peace: 1) 3200 talents of silver ( 60 lbs of silver is one talent ) 2) Evacuate Sicily- Sicily became first Roman province Carthage is short on money so their mercenaries revolt (241 – 238 is a mercenary war) – Mercenaries finally defeated by Hamilcar Barca As mercenary war was waging, some rebel mercenaries in Sardinia asked Rome for help – Rome agrees and Carthage protests, Rome declares war on Carthage – Carthage is very exhausted – they must give Sardinia and Corsica to the Romans and pay another 1200 talents – Cars too weak to resist (237) – Seeds of second Punic War are sown! Cars replace Mediterranean loses with conquest in Spain – Hamilcar Barca leads Car forces across Pillars of Hercules into Spain – (237 – 228) Hamilcar creates new Car province in Southeastern Spain – Hamilcar is eventually killed in a battle with Spanish tribes – His son-in-law Hasdrubal takes over - Hasdrubal establishes New Carthage in Spain – Spain had great mineral resources which allowed Car to pay off Romans and pay mercenaries (226) – Romans made a treaty with Hasdrubal – Cars will not cross north of the Ebro river – was there a “quid pro quo”? no one knows 221 – Hasdrubal dies and Hamilcar’s son HANNIBAL takes over 220 – Leads conquest of many Spanish tribes At some point (before or after 226) Rome made a treaty with the city of Saguntum which was 100 miles SOUTH of Ebro river – Saguntum was quarreling with towns sympathetic to Carthage – Hannibal lays siege to Saguntum – Rome issues ultimatum to Hannibal to keep hands off Saguntum – After 8 months Saguntum falls to Carthage – Roman ambassadors at Carthage demand “Turn over Hannibal and Saguntum or we go to war” Carthaginian response “OK we accept war! ” 218- 2nd Punic War begins – Hannibal crosses Ebro – He transplants African troops to Spain and Spanish troops to Africa to make mercenary revolt less likely while he is attacking Italy – His Main Goal – TO BREAK UP THE ROMAN CONFEDERATION – Hoped allies would turn against Rome – He failed to realize that by this time, the Roman Confederation was built on alliance not subjugation – Puts his brother Hasdrubal in charge of Spain – He makes alliances with the Gauls – Crosses Southern Gaul (France) and then crosses Alps – makes alliances with tribes in Cisalpine Gaul Hannibal’s cavalry (Celtic/Spanish were heavy and Numidians were light) was very good – He won with his cavalry – Hellenistic-style army descended from Alexander and the successors Gauls revolt and join Hannibal: 1) Ticinus River (only cavalry) 2) Trebbia (used elements to his advantage) 3) Trisamene (entire battle was one big ambush) Moved army south / Lost an eye due to an infection Hannibal’s awesome trick!!!! 4) Cannae (Famed Double Envelopment, 50,000 Romans killed worse-defeat ever?) After Cannae Hannibal does not march on Rome – He may not have thought he could take the city (which had very strong walls) – Or he may have been more interested in getting the allies of South Italy to join his side – Many cities in the south do switch but Central Italy remains loyal to Rome – Cannae was the high point for Carthage – The Romans re-group and under the guidance of Fabius Maximus (cuncator: the delayer), the Romans followed a policy of fighting where Hannibal was not present– They defeated Carthaginian forces in Spain and in areas of Italy where Hannibal’s other generals were commanding armies – No major port cities switched to Carthage’s side so it was very difficult to get reinforcements to Hannibal- Even though much of southern Italy switches to the Carthaginian side, central Italy (e.g. Compania, Latium, Etruria) all remain loyal to Rome – The only major city to switch sides was Capua – After the war they were severely punished for this switch of allegianceHannibal remains in Italy until 202 – The Romans slowly regain territory but don’t face Hannibal directly – when a Roman commander is foolish enough to tangle with Hannibal, he pays for it Hannibal remains dangerous – in 212he destroys another Roman army led by the Praetor Fulvius in Apulia – roughly 16,000 men killed The Roman escapees of Cannae (about 10,000 men) are sent to Sicily as a “punishment” for not fighting to the death – this was embarrassing for them 207 – A major army led by Hasdrubal (Hannibal’s brother) traveled over land across the Alps to re-supply Hannibal – Rome intercepted their messengers – (Claudius Nero steals a march) two Roman armies meet the Carthaginian force at Metaurus river – Hasdrubal was defeated thanks to Claudius Nero’s maneuver around the Roman line – (just like Stonewall Jackson at Chancerville) Hasdrubal dies fighting and his head was sent to Hannibal – Publius Cornelius Scipio, after defeating Carthaginian forces in Spain, invades Africa and threatens Carthage directly – he uses the escapees of Cannae (now in Sicily) in his army since they really want to redeem themselves – Scipio is a master politician as well as general and gets the more powerful Numidian tribes to join his side – He also learns from Hannibal’s previous victories and develops counter-tactics - Hannibal is recalled home to defend Carthage but is defeated at Zama in 202 – Hannibal winds up in Asia helping Antiochus III – Nature of Hannibal – Had a motley crew of African, Spanish and Celtic troops formed into a great army – They spoke different languages and had different cultures – They were subjected to extreme hardships yet never mutinied – All we know about him was written by his enemies In the end Rome just had too much man-power – They could sustain many defeats – Strategists such as Fabius Maximus and Publius Cornelius Scipio eventually wore Carthage down. Rome next fought wars against Macedonia and defeated Philip V (who had sided with Hannibal) in 197 B.C. and his son Perseus at Pydna in 167 190-184 – They also defeated Antiochus III in Asia – Hannibal flees and eventually commits suicide rather than surrender to the Romans in 180 In both cases (against Philip V and against Antiochus III) smaller kingdoms asked for Roman aid thus giving Rome an excuse to intervene 146 – 149 Third Punic War - Carthage was not allowed to wage war without Roman permission – The Numidians (allies of Rome) were harassing Carthage and a war began. The Numidians complained to Rome and Rome used this as an excuse to destroy Carthage which was no longer a threat. They destroy Carthage after a 3 year siege. Roman Revolution (133 B.C. – 31 B.C.) Huge problems within Italy – sometimes called “Hannibal’s Legacy” 1) As Rome expanded throughout the Mediterranean, soldiers (poor farmers) were forced to spend years away from their farms (instead of just seasonal farming). These farms fell into ruins and were eventually bought by the rich2) Huge import of slaves from overseas conquests were brought to Italy and provided cheap sources of farm labor – put small farmers out of business 3) Unused and ruined farm lands were bought by rich families and huge (over 500 acres) slave-worked farms called Latifundia were created – Imported wealth allowed rich to get richer 4) By 133 imported corn (from Africa) may have competed with small farmers – Ironic since in 367 a law was passed limiting farms to 300 acres but it was ignored – The result of these problems was the drift of landless (farmers that had lost their land) to Rome where they formed a “mob” – Farmers who gave up land and drifted to Rome became useless MASS of unemployed whose presence led to political and social unrest 5) Italian allies fought side-by-side with Roman citizens but were denied citizenship 6) Military Crisis (?) Not enough men satisfied property requirements to be drafted Optimates – Conservative individuals who wish to uphold the traditional powers and exclusiveness of the Senate – favored power in hands of a few (less than 20) families Populares – Blocked by Senate from enacting legislation, the populares were individuals who by-passed the Senate and brought their bills directly to the people via tribal assembly – But the populares were not champions of the people – Although they appealed to the poor, and sought to pass legislation in their favor, most populares sought to gain personal power at expense of Senate 139-138 – Secret ballot laws allowed people to break from patrons – freedom from pressure of nobles – patronage weakened 133 – Tiberius Gracchus – Proposed a bill to enforce 367 B.C. law limiting farms to 300 acres – Brought bill directly before people – Not Senate – Very untraditional – May have just wanted to save time or may have thought it would be blocked by Senate – Not illegal – Another Tribune named Octavius, on the Senate’s side, vetoed the bill – Tiberius called Tribal assembly and proposed to depose Octavius – Octavius was voted out – The land bill was passed with support of land hungry poor – Deposition of Octavius was even more revolutionary than bringing the bill to the people in the first place Senate refused to finance the law – Attalus of Pergamen willed his kingdom to Rome – Tiberius threatened to introduce a bill to use wealth of Pergamen to fund the land law – This interfered with Senate’s traditional right to control finance and foreign policy issues – Senate gave him $ to finance his Land Law – Tiberius sought re-election to safe guard himself from prosecution and to make sure his law was not annulled – Election to same magistrate two years in a row was forbidden – during debate of legality riot broke out and Tiberius Gracchus was killed along with 300 followers – opposition was led by Scipio Nasica – first blood drawn in 400 yearsConcordia was over 123 – Gaius Gracchus (Tiberius’ brother) was Tribune of Plebs: 1) re-affirmed Land Law of 133 2) storage of grain to stabilize price – grain supplied to citizens sharply criticized as state socialism 3) Transferred extortion juries from Senate to knights [equite] (a business class of non-political rich men) – These knights had interests (such as tax collection) in conflict with provincial governors whose job was to protect provincials from excessive tax – It was more likely knights would find governors guilty of extortion in court – Knights gained great power – Jab at Senate 4) Collection of taxes from Asia auctioned off to knights in Rome – So Gaius created system where knights could collect excessive taxes from Asia and prosecute anyone who tried to stop them 5) In 122 he revived enfranchisement bill for Italians – This bill was unpopular with Roman masses who didn’t want to share voting rights with new groups – Gaius losses support of Roman people – He runs for 3rd term as tribune but a servant of Opimius (a senator) is killed in a scuffle – Opimius persuades Senate to pass Senatus Consultum Ultimum –“Extreme Decree” martial law – Gave power to consuls to protect republic at all costs – Gracchus resisted and he along with 3000 supporters were killed 120 – S.C.U declared legal Opimius aquitted for putting citizens to death without trial 120-110 – Metelli was the dominant family – one client was Marius (Novus Homo) – 111- Marius marries Julia (an aunt of the not-yet-born Julius Caesar) – Marius distinguished himself in Jugarthine war serving Metellus 108 – Marius broke from Metelli and personally appealed to people in Rome to make him consul – They did and sent him to Africa to continue war against Jugartha – People took power away from senate who had traditional right of where to send consuls – People override a senate resolution to keep Metellus in command in Africa as proconsul – Dangerous precedent important step towards overthrowing Senate’s authority – By 104 Jugartha was defeated – Marius elected consul five times in a row (104-100) broke tradition – You were supposed to wait 10 years between consulships – He defeated Germanic tribes ( Cimbri and Teutones) who had been threatening Italy Marius Army Reforms – set stage for civil war: 1) Accepted volunteers on large scale 2) No (or minimizes) property requirements 3) Soldiers got paid (Generals provided salary!!!!!) 4) Pensions 5) Got land after retirement 6) No more Hastati, Princeps, Triarii Result of reforms– Soldiers have allegiance to their generals not the State!! The homeless mob now has a place to go! And allegiance to one man 90-88? Social War – Allies verse Romans – very bloody since allies fought just like Romans – eventually the Romans agree to give many of the allies citizenship and the war fizzles out – the Romans were starting to win anyway- 88- Mithridates of Pontus (a kingdom in Asia Minor) orders the killing of 80,000 Roman civilians who were living in Asia Minor. Although a horrible act, the motivation for this action was probably related to extremely harsh taxes and economic conditions forced on the natives by Rome. Of course, Rome declares war against Mithridates- The senate gives command of the war to Cornelius Sulla Sulpicious- Tribune proposed unseating certain senators who owed money – also transferred command of war against Mithridates from Sulla to Marius (Senate had appointed it to Sulla) – This went against senate’s authority – Senate responded by declaring an Iustitium (suspension of public business) but Sulpicious used thugs and violently met the senate’s opposition – Sulla barely escaped by surrendering to Marius Sulla appealed to his troops from the Social War and invited them to march on Rome – They agreed (personal allegiance) – They took over Rome and Marius and Sulpicious were declared outlaws and their legislation was negated Sulla legislated that all business brought before people had to have senatorial approval – Sulla left for Asia to fight Mithridates 87 – Marius and Cinna use old veterans and ex-allies to retake Rome – Many aristocrats put to death heads displayed in forum – Marius dies (naturally) shortly after 87-84 – Cinna and Carbo continually elected consuls 83 – Sulla arrives back in Italy after defeating Mithridates – Members of Aristocracy flock to him – Young man named Pompey raised 3 private legions and joins him 82-80 – Marius’ forces defeated – Sulla introduced proscriptions – Lists of names of people wanted dead or alive ($ reward offered) – money and property of the executed confiscated - $ used for pay and pensions for army – Many innocent men killed just for being wealthy – Mostly knights – price on their heads – very vicious – teenage Julius Caesar had to flee for his life Restoration Government Legislation: 1) Sulla declares himself dictator (not used for 120 years) 2) Tribune – A) Couldn’t run for future offices B) Lost power of carrying Bills to Tribal assembly C) Veto limited? 3) Courts given back to Senate (taken from equite) 4) Strict cursus honorum 5) Age requirements for magistrates 6) Senate could veto popular legislation 80 – Pompey wanted triumph (for defeating Marian forces in Africa) – delayed disbanding his army – Sulla allows triumph 79 – Sulla resigns dictatorship 78 - Pompey defeats rebel Lepidus and once again delays disbanding army “suggests” to senate he be assigned to Spain 77 - Although Pompey never held a regular magistry, he is given proconsular command in Spain – Jumped the cursus honorum – opposite of what Sulla had envisioned 75 – Tribunes regain the right to run for other offices 73 – Spartacus/Slave War – Crassus (richest man in Rome) assigned to defeat him 71 – Pompey entered slave war toward the end to mop up resistance and used this as an excuse to keep his army from Spain intact – He brought his troops near Rome and asked for consulship (he was never even a praetor!) the Senate turned to Crassus but Crassus aligned with Pompey and the two men demanded the consulship of 70 – They then disarmed their forces 67/66 – Pompey given unlimited power in Mediterranean Sea and 50 miles inland to defeat pirates – Bill was passed by people over the Senate’s head – After defeating pirates Pompey is given command of the Eastern Armies (to defeat Mithridates) – He is supported by Cicero 62 – Pompey returns to Italy and disbands army – Annual Revenue of Republic jumps from 50 to 85 million Drachmas as a result of Pompey’s Asian conquests– However Senate blocks Pompey’s requests: 1) Ratification of his settlement of Near East 2) Land for his veterans Meanwhile Julius Caesar holds praetorship in Spain 60 – Caesar comes back to Italy to run for consulship and celebrate triumph – Senate denies him a triumph and said consuls of 59 would take care of forests in Italy (in anticipation of Caesar winning the office) Caesar offers alliance with Pompey – Pompey married Caesar’s daughter Julia – Caesar also got support of Crassus – The First Triumvirate is secretly created 59 – Triumvirate made public – Caesar as consul got land for Pompey’s veterans – Bill was opposed by Senate and brought before people’s assembly – Senate tried to block it but Caesar brought in Pompey’s veterans (who used physical threats) and got it passed illegally– Settlement of East was also ratified – Caesar got Governorship of Gaul 55 – Caesar’s governorship of Gaul extended another 5 years – Pompey assigned proconsular command in Spain and Crassus picked Syria During 50’s Triumvirs virtually ruled Rome by using picked men to get legislation proposed and urban mob to get legislation passed 54 – Caesar’s daughter (Pompey’s wife) dies – bond between Caesar and Pompey weakened 53 – Crassus killed at Carrhae against the Parthians (show video) Since 59 a group of optimates (senators) led by Cato and Ahenobarbus wanted revenge against Caesar for his illegal activities – These optimates wanted to ally with Pompey against Caesar – Caesar sensed danger and sent request to Senate to extend his command in Gaul to 49 to close the gap between proconsulship and his second consulship (48) thus leaving his enemies with no time to prosecute him – Proposal was rejected – Pompey was silent 50 – Marcellus pushed for Caesar’s recall – But a tribune vetoed the proposal – Curio put forth proposal that Pompey’s command and Caesar’s should end simultaneously – Joint disarmament motion was carried 370 to 22– 22 extremists needed Pompey’s army to enforce their planned prosecution of Caesar – These extremists were actually the proximate cause of civil war – Next day Marcellus appealed to Pompey to ignore constitutional scruples and “save the Republic” by mobilizing his troops and putting immediate pressure on Caesar – Pompey acquiesced Caesar made last ditch efforts for diplomacy but Pompey ‘commands’ Senate (such a command was unconstitutional per se) to stay firm and Senate rejected Caesar’s offer – Marc Antony vetoed this act and was threatened – veto was overridden Cicero tried compromise but extreme optimates rejected his plan 49 – Senate passes emergency decree gives command to Pompey – Caesar could surrender but instead crosses Rubicon river (treason) – A consul could not leave his province at the head of his army - Caesar has to choose between self-defense or political extinction - He makes 6 further overtures in the next 8 months all rejected by either Pompey or the extremists Caesar’s forces were battle hardened veterans – Caesar advanced with great rapidity and seized two of the principal Apennine Passes – Pompey retreated from Rome to Capua (his troops were not well trained) Caesar progressed down the east coast of Italy – Pompey raced to Brundisium and left for Greece (Caesar had no ships) – The rest of 49 Caesar secured his rear Caesar himself went to Spain and defeated Pompeian army Lepidus obtained authorization of Popular Assembly to nominate Caesar as dictator 48 – Caesar elected as consul gave up dictatorship – Caesar went to Greece Dyrrhachium and Pharsalus – Pompey defeated – but some of his officers fled to Africa – Pompey himself fled to Egypt where he was killed by ministers of Ptolemy XII Caesar arrived in Alexandria – Caesar settled dispute between Cleopatra and Ptolemy XII in a way that angered Ptolemy XII who than besieged Caesar in Palace at Alexandria 48-47 – Caesar is rescued – then he stormed Ptolemy XII camp with his troops and put Ptolemy XIII on throne (but Cleopatra was the effective ruler) Then he went to Zela to fight Pharnases - Vendi Vidi Vici – I Came, I Saw, I Conquered 48 – After Pharsulus he became dictator a second time 46 – Elected consul again went to Africa – Thapsus - Cato killed himself – Dictatorship extended for 10 year period – 45 – Labienus and younger Pompey rallied troops in Spain - Caesar defeats them at Munda Caesar’s reconstructionNo Proscriptions – No plundering Reduced the number of free corn recipients from 320,000 to 150,000 – 80,000 disqualified were sent to colonies overseas 1) He drained off to provinces superfluous proletariat of Rome and gave veterans provincial land – Romanized overseas provinces 2) 100,000 Roman citizens received new homes in provinces 3) Gave Rome franchise to provincials who had earned it by service to republic or by voluntary acceptance of Roman culture – Broke down distinctions between Italians and provincials He assumed many titles and called Sulla an ignoramus (idiot) for giving up dictatorship 1) Put his portrait on coins – Hellenistic King practice 2) Allowed his statues to be set up – one even in temple of deified Romulus – blurred human and divine 3) Personally recommended all magistrates 4) Did not ask Senate for help in decision making 44 – Dictator for perpetual duration – When he was hailed a king he shrugged it off – Two tribunes removed a diadem off his statue and he threatened to punish anyone who spoke of him as king Feb. 44 – Refused diadem from Antony – perhaps he would have taken it if crowd cheered for him – Senate was obsequious and included many of his own nominees – Caesar refused to stand when senators greeted him – showed a lack of respect Certain Senators resented him – Cicero called him a Tyrant Caesar planned a Parthian expedition for 18th March Opponents had to strike before that date- led by C. Cassius / M. Brutus backed by 60-80 Senators 44 – Killed him on Ides of March 15th – Antony was consul along with Caesar – He secured Caesar’s will and convened the Senate – Antony agrees to amnesty for conspirators – This had been Cicero’s proposal At funeral his will was read – great nephew Octavius was named chief heir – every Roman citizen was left 300 sesterces – This stirred mob to frenzy of grief and Tyrannicides fled Rome In April Octavius arrived in Italy and on discovering he was heir, he went to Rome – Octavius’s grandfather had married Julius Caesar’s sister – He visited Antony in Rome to claim his share of Caesar’s estate – Antony readily refused May 44 – A dual began as Octavian tried to steal sympathies of Caesar’s old soldiers from Antony and played on Antony’s forgiving Tyrannicides – the name of “Caesar” and his relation to the dead dictator helped him gain the support of Caesar’s veterans. Sept 44 – Quarrel between Cicero and Antony – Cicero produces scolding Philippics which criticized Antony – Cicero accused Antony of having ambitions to rule as a brutal military dictator Oct 44 – Antony accuses Octavian of assassination plot on his life Feb 43 - M. Brutus was in Greece gathered Pharsalus survivors – took over Macedonia –he went East to hook up with Cassius – They collect Eastern forces – Senate declares Antony a public enemy Senate rift with Octavian began – it failed to provide $ for his troops July 43 – Octavian ask for consulship which of course the senate rejected Octavian marches his troops on Rome staged elections and became consul – Revoked the conspirator’s amnesty – appealed to plebs, veterans and some knights including Agrippa – Officially adopted as Caesar’s son – Made secret overtures to Antony – annulled sentence of outlawry of Antony Antony/Octavian/Lepidus passed law putting them on equal footing used tribal assembly 2nd Triumvirate – Gave them free hand in pursuing further wars – unlimited rights of conscription – nominated magistrates – Senate packed with their cronies – They were basically 3 military dictators working together Nov 43 – Republic was over according to Cary and Scullard Proscriptions take place 300 Senators and 2000 equite (knight)– mainpurpose was probably to provide $ previously promised to huge armies Cicero was executed (for his earlier attacks on Antony) – Triumvers instituted a state cult around Julius Caesar – Apotheosis – a person becomes a god Jan 42 – Octavian became a son of a god – 3 men portioned areas to control – Italy was shared Chief purpose of the alliance between Antony and Octavius was to defeat the Tyrannicides (M. Brutus/Cassius) Antony and Octavian head east 42 – Battle of Philippi - Cassius and Brutus defeated and kill themselves Antony was largely responsible for Philippi victory – he was more powerful at the moment Antony got all of East – Octavian got all of West – Lepidus was allowed Africa – Antony married Octavia (Octavian’s sister) After Philippi, Antony made eastern provinces pay huge indemnities for their unwilling submission to Cassius and Brutus – This $ would fund his Parthian Campaign 41 – He also summoned Cleopatra with treasure of Ptolemies in mind – Caesar had made her a “friend of Roman People” and she lived in Rome with her infant son (Caesarian) – After he was assassinated she went back to Alexandria – She killed her brother Ptolemy XIII – she went to see Antony and induced (seduced?) him to spend winter in Alexandria 40 – When Antony returned to Italy to Brundisium he was refused admission by Octavian and another civil war almost began but mediation prevailed and Peace of Brundisium was put in place 40 – She bore him twins – In spring he left her and didn’t see her again for four years 39 –– Octavian married Livia who already has one kid (Tiberius – 2nd emperor) and was expecting another (Drusus) 36 – Antony sets forth on Parthian Campaign with horsemen and light infantry but his artillery train coming from Armenia was intercepted by the Parthians – He couldn’t take any towns and in Autumn was forced to retreat – Lost 22,000 men 36 - Octavian now had fleet of 500-600 ships and 45 legions– Became more powerful than Antony – Peace in Western Mediterranean – People looked to Octavian as imposer of orderly government and stability – Lepidus kicked out of Triumverate after trying to keep Sardinia, but treated well – 34 – Antony overran Armenia for loss of siege train – The fiasco on the Parthian Campaign made him dependent on Cleopatra – need $ made him “unRoman” - on his return to Alexandria he made his “Donations of Alexandria” – He and Cleopatra (robed as Isis) sat on golden thrones with their 3 kids and Caesarian (Julius’s kid) – Antony declared Caesarian was Caesar’s legitimate heir – direct challenge to Octavian who was now declared a Usurper – 33 – Octavian’s relationship with Antony turned sour –Caesarian declared King of Kings – Cleopatra declared Queen of Kings Eastern Empire divided among them and 3 other kids: - Alexander Helios - Cleopatra Selene - Ptolemy Philadelphus 33 – Cleopatra’s influence over Antony angered Octavian who deliberately prepared to break with his partner – After 35 Antony refused to see Octavia (his wife and Octavian’s sister) – Antony divorced her in 32 – Sometime between 37-33 he wanted to become Cleopatra’s prince – Antony’s rejection of Octavia for a nonRoman wife really pissed off Octavian 32 – Propaganda Wars began – Second Triumvirate reached its legal end – Senators and consuls favoring Antony were driven from city Antony’s will published reaffirmed Caesarian as legitimate heir – Also rumor that Antony would make Cleopatra queen of Rome and move capital to Alexandria The west took oath of allegiance to Octavian personally – Octavian elected consul in 31 and declared war on Cleopatra – important propaganda: war was against a foreigner, not a civil war – Cleopatra and Antony were portrayed as decadent “eastern monarchs” who were into drunken parties and weird unRoman gods (ex story of Glaucus) 31 – Actium – Agrippa was Octavian’s Main general/admiral/friend – He was responsible for Octavian’s victories Cleopatra’s presence in Antony’s camp was resented by many of his officers – weakened their loyalty to him – Antony took sails on his ships – He may have been attempting to escape but got caught up in preliminary skirmishing as they broke through lines – Antony and Cleopatra broke away to Egypt – Most of his army deserted to Octavian Antony and Cleopatra killed themselves in Egypt – Caesarian was executed but other kids were raised by Octavia – Octavian carried off royal treasure Antony’s preoccupation with the east made him lose touch with public opinion in Italy – His attachment to Cleopatra made him lose goodwill of his own troops Octavian fostered respect for Italian tradition and thought- he appealed to new men as well as old aristocratic families – Expelled astrologers and banished Eastern rites 29 BC – Octavian celebrates triumph in Rome – Unlike Caesar, he gave serious thought to political situations – Named himself Augustus (Rome first emperor) – Looked after troops – It was imperative that the army’s loyalty not stray – Kept troops busy on campaign – Toured provinces – Propaganda value – Provinces were treated better under Augustus – They weren’t being taken advantage of like during republic – Taxes systemized – Embassies from provinces could complain to Augustus about their governors Senate set at 600 – Role of senate changed from leading organ of Roman state to pool of individuals from which Augustus might draw appointees for various offices (key element of Augustan regime was to disguise this fact) – Unlike Caesar, Augustus treated Senate well, listened to their advice, respected Senate Augustus refused excessive honors and titles – Increased number of consuls to open prestige of office to more individuals and form a pool for administrative duties He was a “Protector of Tradition” – 82 Temples restored – At least 12 ancient priesthoods revived – Excessive displays of wealth were curbed – Marriages between some different classes were banned – childless couples were punished: Accused of murder by omission and treason by stripping the state of future citizens – Adultery severely punished – But he was a hypocrite Powers of Augustus 27 BC – First Constitutional Settlement – “Transferred the res publica from my power to the dominion of the Senate and people of Rome” Res Gaestae – Carefully planned – Gave republic back to Senate and people – Gave up all powers, retired to private life Senators were shocked- they feared that civil war would re-occur – Augustus persuaded to “help out” with running empire – He was given control over all provinces where armies were kept – Senate gained the other provinces – There would now be no confused and divided army loyalties like during late republic – All armies answered to one man – Armies ran by generals picked by Augustus – (i.e. – Empire split between imperial provinces (which had the big armies) under Augustus and public provinces (under the Senate) – Illusion that Senate still shared power and they were important – He took no powers for life but his 10 year rulership of imperial provinces kept getting renewed 23 BC – Second Constitutional Settlement – Augustus relinquished the consulship he held since 31 – In return he received two important powers: 1) Greater proconsular power – Interfere legally in any province with power greater than the governors and commanders on the spot 2) Tribunician power – Could summon Senate, propose legislation, exercise absolute veto over all government procedures – Not a tribune, just had the power of one Twin Pillars established for all subsequent Emperors: 1st Constitutional Settlement Gave up: rule back to people Got: Imperial provinces (control of army) 2nd Constitutional Settlement – Gave up: Consulship Got: 2 powers Augustus would suggest courses of action to the Senate, not order them – His Auctoritas gave him power – Auctoritas is a combination of: birth, achievement, wealth, offices held, personal qualities – Allowed him to get his way with the Senate Root of power was 350,000 man army – Equipped by state – Soldiers took oath of loyalty to Augustus himself Augustus’ position was personal and crafted overtime – What would happen once he died? –Technically once he died, his power should return to the Senate and people – Succession woes – Augustus wanted principate to continue but his position was based on Auctoritas which can’t be passed on – It was personal can’t just choose a successor – This was the succession dilemma – Solution: look to own family and raise relatives to positions of power in their own right – Soldiers were loyal to name Caesar – Made sense to keep loyalty in Caesar family name – But he could only indicate his choices which left room for great machinations for centuries (constrained by legal fictions that masked military rule) Augustus created a pool of princes from which he drew immediate successors and indicted his preferences for the 3rd generation of the Principate – Under this system there was at any given time an immediate successor and behind him, a stable of viable candidates Within 30 years of Augustus’ death (14 AD), political realities of Autocracy became more obvious – Method of creating pools of princes opened factional fault lines at the court as circles of supporters formed around potential candidates for promotion – It soon became obvious that whom ever the army supported was in a position of power – Emperors had to appease the army to keep power – First becomes obvious with Claudius – Tacitus called this the “Secret of Empire” A History of Later Roman Empire 284 – 641 The History of the Later Roman Empire (late antiquity) was forged in an environment of warfare, battle and military activity – more than two-thirds of the annual state budget was expended on soldier’s wages, Army supplies, and army infrastructure Throughout the 4th century the aims and motives of Roman wars were 3 fold: 1) Maintain the borders of the empire against barbarians 2) Fight usurpers in Civil Wars 3) Wars provided the army with their chief occupation and were the source of the spoils and booty that motivated the soldiers Rome had grown accustomed to, and had made use of, German barbarians since the beginning of the empireJulius Caesar had used Germanic cavalry- In the 3rd and early 4th centuries AD the proportion of barbarians serving the armies increased dramatically – Individuals of barbarian origin such as Arbogast, and Stilicho rose to officerships of the highest degree-Members of the imperial family intermarried with leading barbarian families throughout late antiquity- ex. Stilicho married the niece of Theodosius I – Such alliances were based on mutual benefits not on shared culture To most barbarians conditions of life appeared much better in the Roman Empire than outside of it – Large scale immigrations across the Rhine and Danube occurred since the 1st century – These immigrants were broken into small groups and were integrated into Roman culture – Barbarians living adjacent to the empire grew richer due to trade and subsidies – Weakness within the empire led to widespread barbarian raiding in the 3rd and 4th centuries The burdens of warfare were without question the main reason Diocletian created the tetrarchy – Its main objective was to achieve a manageable division of imperial power and it led to an unofficial territorial division of the empire (West and East) – The tetrarchy was formed between 286-293 The Tetrarchy (1) Diocletian – Augustus – ruled in Nicomedia (Turkey) gave him access to Eastern Provinces and lower Danube, A) Galerius – Caesar – was in Sirmium facing Central Danube, Thessalinica in Greece or Antioch in Syria (2) Maximian – Augustus – based in Milan, access to upper Danube and Rhine, A) Constantius – Caesar – at Trier – covered central and lower Rhine – could deal with many different threats at one time – Famous statue collegiality and morality – Other major reforms of Diocletian – Declared himself of Jupiter and declared Maximian of Hercules – These new titles represented a way of orienting political and religious ideology firmly around the rulers – Sol Invictus – (the unconquered sun god) was also heavily worshipped especially in the army – Was often fused with Mithras – Under Diocletian and the tetrarchy , the Roman emperor became an absolute monarch, divinely mandated and held aloof from his people by ceremony and formality – The Principate, or rule by a leading citizen had given way to the Dominate, or rule by a lord - subjects had to prostrate themselves in the emperor’s presence-Emperors wore “Eastern” exotic silk robes rather than Western cotton. – Diocletian broke up large provinces into smaller provinces – This dramatically reduced the scale of any one official’s command – it also dramatically increased the governmental bureaucracy since each governor had to have his own staff Separated military and civilian hierarchies – officials who collected taxes and paid soldiers not the same officials who commanded the troops in the field Price Edict of 301 – Set maximum prices for goods and services as a means of controlling military costs – it flopped because prices were set so low the plan was unsustainable Wide spread Christian persecution began 303 since they wouldn’t sacrifice to Jupiter and this was interpreted as political resistance 305 – Diocletian and Maximian retire and Contantius and Galerius become the new Augusti – New Caesars are nominated : Maximinus and Severus – But Constantius’ son Constantine and Maximian’s son Maxentius protested and a civil war broke out – Diocletian was recalled from retirement and a new compromise Tetrarchy was established in 308 : 1). Galerius and Licinius – 2 Augusti 2). Maximinus and Constantine – 2 Caesars – shortly after these two were also promoted to Augusti 310 – Maximian once again declares imperial power and is defeated by Constantine – Galerius dies of disease in 311 – 3 Augusti briefly rule the empire : Licinius, Constantine, Maximinus – meanwhile, Maxentius establishes himself as Augustus in Italy and Northern Africa 312 – Constantine defeats Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge – Senate recognizes Constantine as senior Augustus – He makes a pact with Licinius who marries Constantine’s sister Constantia 313 – Maximinus invades Licinius’ territory but is defeated by Licinius – We are now down to two Augusti Constantine – Son of Constantius and Helena (?) – (273 – 337) rise to power from (305 – 312) 3 main themes: 1) Dynastic claims to power 2) Support of the armies 3) Harnessing of religious propaganda Flimsy claims that he was the grandson of Claudius Gothicus (emperor from 268 – 270) provided propaganda of dynastic claims – helped secure him as senior Augustus – Also his father was an Augusti Constantine was supported by his father’s army – Religious propaganda was rampant during this period – World dominance was secured under the guidance of two gods : Jupiter and Hercules – Although these were traditional gods, the religion of the time assumed a radically new form Constantine’s conversion to Christianity must be seen in this context – On the eve of Milvian Bridge battle Constantine was convinced that a solar apparition he had experienced should be interpreted as a promise of victory from the God of the Christians Armed with this new conviction, and placing, we are told, the sign of the cross on the shields of his soldiers he led his troops to victory – It is generally acknowledged that there was a close affinity between the Christianity which Constantine endorsed in 312 and contemporary solar worship – The nature of his vision suggests that at the decisive moment of his imperial career, Constantine’s belief in a supreme solar deity and belief in the Christian God were virtually convergent By 324 Constantine had conquered Licinius and was sole emperor – He had 4 sons Crispus (with Minervina) and Constantine II, Constantius II, and Constans (with Fausta) – eventually he executes Crispus and Fausta for allegedly sleeping together – Interestingly, the pagan historian Zosimus, who is hostile to Constantine, claims his conversion resulted from these events since Christianity is the only religion that will completely absolve sin through the rite of baptism – Constantine delayed baptism until his death bed 313 – Compact at Milan proclaimed religious toleration for all but particularly favored Christians since it brought an end to the persecutions forever Constantine changed the role of emperor as he actively engaged in church affairs – He saw himself responsible to God for the unity and harmony of the earthly kingdom which he ruled – He exempted clerics from taxation – He endowed church construction to further the worship of the Christian God 321 – He issued a law making Sunday a rest day – This is an example of his blurring of sun worship and worship of the Christian god 325 – He arranged for the first ecumenical council to be convened at Nicea – Constantine publicly announced his role “You are bishops whose jurisdiction is within the church: I also am a supervisor, ordained by God to overlook affairs outside the Church – The Council of Nicea was held to resolve the Arrian controversy – Constantine rule in favor of the Orthodoxy against the Arrians but Arrianism remained for several hundred years Arrian – God the father is superior to his son the father existed before the son-Christ was divine, but not quite the equal of God the father Orthodox – God the father and God the son are equal Constantine renames Byzantium Constantinople and makes it the Eastern capitol of the empire. The successors of Constantine – The 3 sons fought each other and various usurpers until by 354 Constantius was the sole emperor – Barbarian raids were a problem and Constantius appointed Julian (his nephew’s halfbrother) as Caesar – Julian campaigned against the Franks and Alemanni tribes in Gaul – His victory at Strasbourg in 357 against the Alemanni secured the Rhine for 50 years – in 360 Julian is declared Emperor by his troops – Constantius prepares to confront Julian but dies on the way to Gaul Julian was only emperor for 20 months but his reign is well documented – He held an extremely unorthodox religious position : an opposition to Christianity and a desire to rekindle pagan theology – He refused to let Christians be teachers Julian’s father and family were murdered by Constantius’ army (probably at the order of Constantius) back in 337 – His models were Marcus Aurelius, Achilles, Alexander and Julius Caesar – He was a passionate student of Greek culture, imbued in the literature, philosophy and religious ideas of Classical Greece – He restored certain city-state concepts such as the right of cities to collect taxes from their own lands He believed a successful invasion of Persia (which had recently defeated Rome in the East) would demonstrate the superiority of paganism over the misguided imperial mission begun by Constantine to bring Christianity to the Roman world 363 – Julian marches into Persia – at first everything goes OK but when Julian enters a skirmish without putting on his armor he is speared and dies the next day – Jovian is elevated to emperor but must surrender important territory to the Persians in order to get his army out safely 364 – Valentinian (in west) and Valens (in east) became emperors – in 375 Gratian (Valentinian’s son) becomes emperor in west Valentinian and Valens lacked the dynastic authority of Constantine and his successors – They owed their positions to the officers who had organized the succession to Jovian in 364 – Army commanders and the holders of the great offices of state not only had key roles throughout this period in forming and executing policy, but also for arranging the composition of the imperial house – During the 370’s and 380’s the destinies of Gratian, Valentinian II (another son of Valentinian) and Theodosius I were decided not by the senior emperors at the time but by cliques of senior political and military figures 369 – Valens makes treaty with the Greuthungi (a gothic tribe) Valens meets their leader, Athanaric, on boats in the Middle of the Danube River – Valens had been unable to conquer the Goths and thus an agreement on Roman terms was the best solution – Goths were only allowed to conduct trade at two crossing points on the river – tribute and subsidies that had previously been paid to the Goths ceased 376 – Huns from Central Asia begin sweeping into Eastern Europe – The Tervingi tribe asks for permission to cross the Danube to seek asylum in Roman territory – Some modern scholars say the Huns “pushed” them into the Roman Empire, others say they were attracted to the life in the Roman provinces and the Huns were not yet a significant threat – The emperor reluctantly (or not?) agreed to let Tervingi cross into Roman territory – The Greuthungi tribe crossed the river without Roman permission and joined their fellow Goths – The Goths were not treated well by the Romans – They were exploited (about 200,000 Goths altogether) finally they rebelled and began ravaging Roman territory – A huge battle occurred at Adrianople where Valens was killed and his army destroyed – The Goths were led by Fritigern – It was supposedly the worst Roman defeat since Cannae – Valens should have waited for Gratian and the Western army – The Goths occupied Thrace – Valens’ body was never recovered Emperors were expected to lead all major campaigns in person and always did until 378 when the Romans suffered a catastrophic defeat at Adrianople and the Roman Emperor Valens was killed – This defeat changed the role and character of Rome’s monarchy – – For the next 250 years emperors did not lead their armies into battle - From the accession of Diocletian to the death of Theodosius I (284-395) the Roman state was ruled by warrior emperors who fought against internal rivals and defended its frontier against external enemies – From 395-610 Emperors evolved a style of ruling radically different from what had gone before – Emperors and their courts became sedentary – Emperors from 395-610 were based in Constantinople in the East and Ravenna in the West – As emperors ceased to take part in campaigns themselves and became palace-based, the empire’s ability to defend the Northern frontier and retain the Western provinces was critically reduced 378 – 382- Central issue for empire was how to deal with Goths who, although not able to subdue cities, occupied the countryside of the whole Thrace 379 – Theodosius was made Emperor by Gratian 382 – Major occurrence – Treaty of 382 – The Tervingi and some Greuthungi were allowed to settle on the south bank of the Danube in the provinces of Thrace RETAINING THEIR OWN SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND MILITARY ORGANIZATION – The Goths were partners as well as subjects even though Roman propaganda claimed they surrendered Why had Theodosius and Gratian agreed to this treaty? 1) Major defeat at Adrianople 2) Unable to gain the upper hand between 378 – 382 3) The line of defense against other barbarian tribes such as Alans and Huns was stretched very thin 4) Recruiting Roman man power was becoming more difficult The treaty was an epoch-making foedus - (a full Roman treaty between notionally equal partners) – The Gothic position was profoundly ambiguous – They were both subjects of Rome on imperial territory and loyal subjects of their own tribal rulers Interlude – Rise of Christianity 4th Century: More than half the inhabitants of the Roman world converted to Christianity 325 (Nicea) and 381 (Constantinople) Arrian debate was central issue – Was Christ equal to God? Was there a father before the son? Arrians said Christ was divine but not equal to the father – Orthodox Catholicism said father and son were equal and both had always existed 481 (Chalcedon) issue was nature of Christ – Whether he had the duel nature of God and Man (i.e. two natures) or whether these two aspects were fused into a single divine nature – The first concept won out – All Christians today believe Christ has duel natures of God and Man except for a small pocket of Christians in Egypt Religious policies were changing – The emperors were determined to establish Christian Orthodoxy at all costs – This led to them showing a much higher level of intolerance towards pagans, Jews and heretical Christian sects- Rise in Power of Christianity-388 a Christian mob led by their own bishop destroyed a synagogue in a town along the Euphrates river-Theodosius knew the importance of treating all citizens of the empire equally under the law and ordered the local governor to punish the criminals and compensate the victims - Ambrose of Milan sent a letter to Theodosius protestingAmbrose stated that Christians should not be held responsible for compensating people who denied the divinity of Christ- Ambrose himself said he would take responsibility for the burning- Ambrose believed Christians should be privileged and supported against their enemies- it was the duty of an emperor to show solidarity with his fellow Christians- Theodosius cancelled his punishment + compensation orders- Here we see a bishop overriding the rulings of an emperor + a bishop “forcing” him to reverse his decrees390-In Thessalonica there were riots in which a garrison commander was killed- Theodosius order widespread retribution + many civilians were killed-Theodosius’ reputation was hit hard + he needed to redeem himselfAmbrose hinted that he would no longer be able to give Theodosius communion- In public at the Basilica of Milan Theodosius asked for penance from Ambrose- Here was the emperor deep in sin, coming to church to be purged of it- effectively an emperor was accepting the supremacy of church- within a few weeks of his penance, Theodosius had passed laws that in effect banned all expressions of cult worship at pagan shrines395-The Olympic games were held for the last time (Until 1896) Religion during Justinian’s Reign (527560?) Pagans defined as those who had not received or agreed to undergo baptism – Those who refused were banned from teaching or being employed by the state – Their children were to be FORCIBLY educated in Christian doctrine – Those who defied law would be punished by exile and confiscation of their property Back to chronological account Imperial power (interpreted in the narrow sense as the personal authority of the emperor) diminished- Gratian and Theodosius I were not military figures – Civil war occurred throughout the Western Empire in the 380’s and 390’s – Gratian killed in 383 by usurpers under Maximus – Eventually Theodosius defeats Maximus (391) and sets up base temporarily in Milan – It is during his stay in Milan that Theodosius asks penance of forgiveness from Ambrose, the Bishop of Milan, thus symbolizing the growing power of Christianity – Valentinian II (who replaced Gratian) briefly sent to Trier but he was a figurehead – the real power was in the hands of Arbogast (a Frankish general almost certainly appointed by Theodosius) Arbogast and a nobleman named Eugenius usurp Valentinian II’s command (he committed suicide in 392) Eugenius attempts to win recognition from Theodosius – He wooed support of the largely pagan aristocracy of Rome – 393 Theodosius rejects Eugenius and sends troops against him 394 – Theodosius’ largely barbarian troops (including 20,000 Goths) overcame Eugenius’ men at battle of Frigidus River – Eugenius troops, it is said, entrusted their fortunes to the pagan gods Hercules and Jupiter, while Theodosius’ barbarians were protected by the Christian god – 10,000 of Theodosius’ Goths were killed in the battle and their resentment that their sacrifice had not been justly rewarded by Theodosius was one of the chief causes for the Gothic leader Alaric to stage a revolt which would last 15 years – The treaty of 382 began to splinter Frigidus River saw the last great pagan army – Theodosius dies in 395 – Theodosius’ 2 sons Arcadius in Constantinople and Honorius in Milan (and then switching to Ravenna) don’t serve as military commanders – Ravenna and Constantinople remain as the twin centers of imperial power for the remainder of Antiquity – Theodosius two sons: Arcadius (age 6 in 383) and Honorius (age 8 in 393) were named Augusti – These 2 boys were of course to young to be military commanders – By placing the dynasty’s hopes for the future in children, Theodosius acknowledged that senior and experienced political and military men held the reins of power The year 395 is seen by modern historians as the moment when the eastern and western empires parted ways – In the West the general Stilicho became the major military figure – Stilicho’s dominance was due to the fact that Honorius was still only 10 years old The large band of Gothic warriors that had fought for Theodosius at Frigidus River and had lost so many men were not happy – They had demanded gold, grain and land for settlement in return for their loyalty and sacrifice – They received none of it – Alaric emerged as their leader – He took the Goths south and invaded Greece and ransacked Athens – The Gothic rampage effectively cut off safe routes between the East and West – The exact position of the Goths is open to debate: 1) Alaric was a leader of national movement who were in search of more land and better living conditions 2) Alaric was the leader of a large group of Foederati, fighting in Rome’s service, but potentially biddable by the rival rulers of the eastern and western empire – always looking for the “best deal” for his followers – In reality the Gothic position probably fluctuated between 1 and 2 399 – Alaric employed by Eastern administration – Alaric could legitimately acquire provisions from Arcadius 399 – Gothic revolt in East – Revolt was put down but barbarians were excluded from major military commands afterward – Appeasement became a major policy in East for the next 50 years 401 – East stops supplying Alaric and he moves his people into Northern Italy where Stilicho blocks his progress 402 – Stilicho begins employing Goths as allies to secure Illyricum for the Western Empire 405/406 – Stilicho’s plan to recover Illyricum is interrupted by a huge Gothic invasion across the Rhine and Danube led by the Gothic chieftain Radagaisus – Stilicho employs Romans, Alans and Huns to defeat Radagaisus – Thousands of Goths were taken prisoner and enslaved while as many as 12000 were enlisted in Roman forces New Years 406/407 – A huge force of Vandals and Suebi crossed the frozen Rhine – Western forces were powerless to stop them Meanwhile Alaric, who wasn’t getting paid by Stilicho, heads back to Italy to threaten Rome – Stilicho convinced the Senate to pay off Alaric and not fight him – appeasement 408 – Arcadius dies – A rift developed between Honorius and Stilicho on who would travel to Constantinople to oversee the succession – Troops loyal to Honorius assassinated Stilicho at Ravenna and massacre thousands of barbarians who were based in Italy including women and children - the victims were the individuals who had been in Radagaisus’ army Alaric now had to deal directly with Honorious – Honorious refuses any cooperation – Alaric scales down his demands – He no longer requested gold, just land and food for his people – On these modest terms there could be friendship between his people and the Romans – Honorius rejects offer – Alaric resumes his siege of Rome (first began in 408) and cuts off supplies from Ostia – Eventually Alaric sacks Rome in 410 – HUGE EVENT ! – The last time Rome was sacked was 390 BC by Gauls 800 years earlier – Morale breaking event – Most Romans take refuge in churches which weren’t harmed because the Goths themselves were Arrian Christian – After 3 days of looting the Goths leave Rome – Alaric’s predicament was still not resolved – He just wanted land and food for his people – He was not trying to conquer Rome 411 – Alaric dies – Athaulf becomes leader of Goths – In the meantime Goths move all over Italy and fail to cross into Africa – Running short of food, Athaulf takes Goths into Gaul – He marries Honorius’ sister Galla Placida (who was captured in sack of Rome) Honorius had no children – Athaulf and Galla Placida had son – Plan was for him to become new emperor with Athaulf pulling strings Honorius’ general Constantius III attacked the Goths and blockaded them – facing starvation the Goths rose against Athaulf and assassinated him along with his brother and children – Eventually Theoderic became the new Gothic king in 417/418 – A ruling dynasty was established that would last until 507 – The Visigoths had arrived – The Visigoths were established in southwest Gaul – They received no payments from Rome and were not awarded generalships – Rome recognized the Gothic King as a legitimate leader of an independent kingdom – After Rhine Crossing of 406 other barbarians within the empire were worse than the Visigoths – From 416 Goths and Romans cooperated militarily in Spain attacking the survivors of the Rhine Crossing – For the empire, the Visigoths were the lesser of two evils In West Galla Placida marries the general Constantius – They have a son named Valentinian III born in 419 – Constantius dies in 421 – Honorius dies in 423 (Honorius outlawed gladiatorial combat) – Valentian III becomes new emperor – Val III rules until 453 –Emperors of 5th Century were basically confined to their Imperial cities Constantinople and Ravenna – Each was protected by land and were able to be supplied from the sea 408 – Arcadius’ son Theodosius II becomes emperor in East at age of 7 – Died in riding accident in 450 - Under Theodosius II huge land walls were built to protect Constantinople – Also, during Theodosius’ reign the Codex Theodosianus was published – This work was a codification of Roman public law used by magistrates and judges for guidance – It was used by both East and West which is a reminder that no one in high office considered the empire split 406 – Vandals, Alans and Suebi cross the frozen Rhine – The Romans employed the Visigoths against these tribes, who had settled in Spain – As of 420 Rome had lost control of Spain and had stopped defending Britain Fall of the West: 1) The gradual secession of territory to the invaders meant a loss of revenue and power 2) The local landowning elites of the western provinces began to make compacts with the barbarian newcomers or look to their own defenses 3) This promoted a slow dissolution of the old empire over two or three generations 4) Goths, Suevians, Burgundians, Alans and Vandals all claimed land on which to settle, with the result that the empire relinquished a significant part of its revenue from taxable land 5) As it became clear that the empire was less able to protect them, local landowners now began to waver in their loyalty to Rome and their readiness to pay taxes to Rome 6) Tax revenues also fell as areas, including Britain in 410, seceded and looked to their own defense Institutionally, the 5th century kingdoms combined Germanic tribal practices with those of Roman provincial society – The most important of these was the retention, usually in modified form, of Roman legal practices, which were embodied in new written law codes – For the most part German kings ruled their subjects with Roman methods and tools – The populations of these kingdoms were mixed – The majority were evidently the indigenous Roman inhabitants, of all classes from simplest peasant to the great landowners, who recognized Germanic tribal kings as new governors – It appears that the kings and their followers received 1/3 of the land from the territory they occupied At local levels, civic leadership was undertaken by the church and its bishops – The church played a major role mediating between the Roman and German people locally In 439 the Vandals (who had earlier crossed from Spain to Africa) took Carthage and cut off the income that the western empire derived from Africa Valentinian III’s general is Flavius Aetius (the last Roman general) – Aetius employed Huns as a major component in his army during the 430’s – Using Huns he obtained the stabilization of Gaul Attila rose to prominence during the 430’s in Illyricum – His threats toward the east and Constantinople resulted in a policy of appeasement as Theodosius II provided a continuous flow of tribute payments – It was Roman wealth which transformed Huns from individual tribes into a united empire – Gold allowed Attila to pay men to fight under his leadership – Luxury items increased his prestige and influence – Allowed him to unite the Huns but he had to keep pressure on the empire to continue the gold supply – Attila’s Huns were very different from the Huns Ammianus describes – Gold was obtained via tribute, looting during raids, ransoming prisoners, also items obtained via trade – Much of the tribute would make its way back to the empire through trade along the borders 435 – Theodosius II agreed to pay Attila 700 lbs of gold tribute 440 – Huns under Attila and his brother Bleda launched a major offensive across Danube – Theodosian walls saved Constantinople – A new agreement in 447 forces Constantinople to pay 6000 lbs of gold and annual payments of 2,100 lbs In 451 Attila turns toward the west and invades but he is defeated by a Roman force under Aetius and a Visigothic force – Attila was defeated but not destroyed – In 452 Attila invaded Italy but Pope Leo convinced him to spare Rome – 453 Attila dies of a hemorrhage and the Hunnic empire gradually dissolves 457 – Leo (not the Pope) became Emperor in East – He was crowned by the bishop of Constantinople – This was the first coronation of an emperor by a bishop and confirms the growing authority of the church 474 - After Leo dies, Zeno becomes emperor in East –he came from a semibarbarian pocket of territory called Isauria located within the borders of the eastern empire (specifically the Taurus mountains in Asia Minor) 455 – Valentinian III murdered – His successor Maximus was married to Valentinian’s widow Eudoxia while her daughter Eudocia was offered to Maximus’ son Palladius – But Eudocia was already betrothed to Huneric, son of the Vandal King Gaiseric and the Vandals intervened – they attacked Italy and they plundered Rome for 14 days, inflicting greater losses than Alaric’s Goths had in 410, thereby earning themselves the reputation which their name preserves today – Maximus was killed and Eudoxia and Eudocia taken back to Africa A series of short-lived emperorships followed- Ricimer (the grandson of the Visigothic leader Vallia who ruled from 415 – 418) is the military leader of Rome and the real power behind these puppet emperors – Ricimir appeals to Constantinople for a new emperor in 465 and Leo sends Anthemius – But after a series of military setbacks civil war breaks out between Ricimer (who is backed by the barbarian residents of Italy) and Anthemius (backed by the civilian population and the senators) – Among Ricimer’s supporters was a Scirian warrior named Odoacer 472 – Rome falls to Ricimer Anthemius is executed – Shortly after Ricimer and Olybrius (the new emperor) both die of natural causes 475 – A final attempt to assert control over Gaul from Italy is made by the emperor Nepos but his general Orestes turns against him and after Nepos flees, Orestes places his son Romulus Augustulus (THE LAST EMPEROR IN THE WEST) as emperor – But in 476 Orestes losses control of his barbarian troops and they put their leader Odoacar in charge (not as emperor but as a Germanic king) THIS MARKS THE END OF WESTERN ROMAN EMPIRE Meanwhile all this civil war and chaos encouraged barbarians in the west to make aggressive moves – Burgundians established pacts with the Gallo/Roman landowners – Romans in Gaul held military and civilian offices appointed by Gothic kings – The Visigoths (under Euric) capture most of Spain from the Seubi and expanded further into Gaul The Franks in Northern Gaul expand in the 460’s Some Gallo-Roman elites sought to use the Visigoths as weapons in political disputes with the central imperial authority – Economic motives to cooperate with the Visigoths were also important – Trade with Rome was no longer practical Gaiseric, the Vandal king, played a vital role in the collapse of the western empire – He ruled from 428 – 477 – The Vandals were a formidable sea power as well as land power – By the capture of Carthage the Vandals became the only barbarian group to exercise lasting control over a major Mediterranean city : 1) Attack on Rome 455 – proved Italy was vulnerable to his sea-power 2) Navel expeditions from Constantinople ( in 468 1,000 ships were lost) failed to defeat him – Along with 1,000 ships, 64,000 lbs of gold and 700,000 lbs of silver were lost – Economic disaster 3) Sea power of Vandals was equivalent of land power of Huns in 440’s and early 450’s 4) The loss of Africa and Carthage severely weakened the western empire by the loss of tax revenue and the loss of a major food supply – Romans were forced to deal with them diplomatically The Goths began to rise in the Balkans after the collapse of Hunnic powerthese Goths had been subjects of the Hunnic empire - at various times these Goths are employed by the Eastern emperors 486 – Theoderic the Amal (an Ostrogothic warlord) revolted against Zeno (eastern emperor) – Theoderic’s Goths cut off the water supply to Constantinople and Zeno paid off Theoderic – After negotiations it was decided that Theoderic should go to Italy and recover the western part of the empire which hadn’t had an emperor for 10 years – Theoderic’s job was to over throw Odoacar – Theoderic, with the help of Visigothic forces, defeated Odoacar in 490 and besieged him at Ravenna – After a 3 year siege Odoacar was tricked into thinking the two men would co-rule Italy – He allowed Theoderic into the city and Theoderic murdered Odoacar with his own hands – Theoderic was to rule the Ostrogothic kingdom of Italy until 526 491 – Anastasius becomes eastern emperor – In 497 he recognizes Theoderic as king in Italy After Anastasius dies Justin becomes emperor in 518 – He appoints his nephew Justinian as co-emperor and in 527 Justinian becomes sole emperor – The reign of Justinian is well documented by the last great historian of the ancient world – Procopius – Procopius was a participant in many of the wars he documents – His most controversial work is the Secret History in which he portrays Justinian and his empress Theodora as corrupt and evil individuals (even demonic!) who crave power – Significantly, the Secret History was not published during Justinian’s life Justinian was determined to consolidate the Roman Empire as a universal kingdom, ruled in justice before God – A first step was to codify and publish the entire body of Roman law on a definitive basis: The Justinian Law Code – Human law was explicitly shaped by the guiding hand of God, and the code began with the invocation “in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ” – It was a union of divine and secular authority Intolerance was the rule during Justinian’s reign – Various heretical sects were persecuted violently (Montanists, Samaritans, Nestorians) – Also Justinian mounted a final major onslaught on paganism – In 529 he passed a law to not only abolish pagan practice but to force all pagan households to be baptized into Christianity – Pagan teaching was a focus of attack and Justinian closed the philosophical school at Athens, the most important center of pagan learning – The staff of the school fled to Persia – The first years of Justinian were marked by missionary terror, to destroy all remnants of heresy or paganism 532 – The Nika Riot – A blood-bath that led to over 30,000 fatalities and the burning down of much of Constantinople – Chariot races were a serious sport in Constantinople – There were two main factions: The Greens and Blues – There was intense and violent rivalry between these two groups – Riotous behavior, often orchestrated by the factions, which were capable of mobilizing large numbers of followers, was a central feature of life in the great cities of the eastern empire – The circus factions were the only means by which the masses of the people could be organized, and if necessary mobilized – The style of government of the late Roman Empire had removed the constitutional buffers between the emperor and his people – Political business was carried out within the walls of a palace far removed from the people – The point at which the rest of the population could make its feelings known was precisely in the hippodrome, where the emperor and his leading officials appeared at the races before the people – It was inevitable that the circus should provide the focal point for political discontent – The majority of inhabitants were poor and underemployed 1) Partisans rioted after the races in Jan. 532 and this led to the arrest of seven ringleaders and execution of five of them, (two prisoners escaped and fled to a monastery in Chalcedon) 2) At the next race the crowd asked the emperor to pardon the escapees – There was no response until later during the races when the crowd began to chant in union “Nika”(victory) they went to headquarters of the city prefect, set the prisoners free that they found there, and burned the place down 3) The emperor was unmoved and scheduled games for the next day – The crowd demanded that Justinian remove the prefect from office – Justinian agreed but the riot continued and Justinian’s general Belisarius was sent in to crush the crowd – Many people were killed and buildings burned – The church of Hagia Sophia was destroyed 4) The next day the crowd went crazy and burned many more buildings – Justinian ordered a final intervention by 3 military commanders and they slaughtered over 30,000 people – 2 potential usurpers (grandchildren of Anastasius) were executed 5) In the aftermath Justinian claimed victory over Tyrants and Usurpers but this propaganda hid his real goal which was to curb the unruly violence of the people – His real target were the countless masses – Some say his slow action was designed to goad the mob into violence so he could crush them – After the riot a new Hagia Sophia was built (completed in 537) which still stands today 533 – After fighting an inconclusive war with Persia, Justinian turned his attention toward Africa in the hopes of removing the Vandals and bringing Africa back under Roman control – His general Belisarius led the expedition – Procopius went along – The Vandals were unaware of the impending invasion and were caught off guard – Within a year Africa was reclaimed for Rome – But they heavily taxed the locals and there was resistance from the Roman population and Moors 535 – Belisarius was sent to Sicily to use it as a spring board to capture Italy from the Ostrogoths – The resistance of many major Italian cities against the invaders showed that Gothic rule was well routed in Italy – The “Roman” invaders from the east were often regarded as “Greeks” whereas many Italians remained loyal to the Goths as defenders of the “Roman” population in Italy – Naples closed its gates to the army of Belisarius and was taken only after a bloody siege – Rome changed hands several times and the local population throughout Italy suffered – Water supplies were cut off – Locals were sold as slaves – Theodahad surrendered in Ravenna in 540 – Worse yet to come – The introduction of direct Byzantine rule and the arrival of tax officials provoked such opposition that Italy soon flared up in rebellion under the Gothic king Totila – Totila recaptured most of Italy – In Rome the Senate met for the last time during this turbulent period – Many aqueducts were destroyed – Plagues broke out – Hunger was rampant – In 552, under the general Narses, Justinian’s forces defeat Totila – Parodoxically, Justinian’s attempt to bring back Roman rule to Rome and Italy did more damage than any of the barbarian invasions and weakened the basis for Roman restoration 568 – The Lombards invaded Italy and encountered very little resistance – They conquered some areas but other parts (mostly coastal cities) remain Byzantine – Italy is never unified again until the 1800’s AD