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Chapter 8 Learning © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Learning: Chapter 8 Lecture Overview • Learning • Conditioning – Classical conditioning – Operant conditioning • Cognitive Social Learning • Neuroscience and Evolution © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Learning • Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from practice or experience – Learning can be unlearned – Observation can lead to learning – Learning requires an operational memory system © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Classical Conditioning • Certain stimuli can elicit a reflexive response – Air puff produces an eye-blink – Smelling a grilled steak can produce salivation • The reflexive stimulus (UCS) and response (UCR) are unconditioned © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Classical Conditioning • In classical conditioning, the CS is repeatedly paired with the reflexive stimulus (UCS) – Conditioning is best when the CS precedes the UCS – The neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) after it is repeatedly paired with the UCS • Eventually the CS will produce a response (CR) similar to that produced by the UCS © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Pavlov’s Experiment © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Analysis of Pavlov’s Study © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Conditioning of Emotional Responses • John Watson documented that conditioning of emotional responses in the Little Albert study – CS: a white rat – UCS: a loud banging sound – UCR: fear/startle response – Eventually Albert exhibited fear of the white rat © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Conditioned Emotional Responses • Conditioned Emotional Response: a classically conditioned emotional response to a previously neutral stimulus © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Examples of Classical Conditioning • Other instances of learning – conditioning of attraction in advertising • Brand name (CS) + attractive model (UCS) => liking (UCR) – aversion • Flavor (CS) + illness (UCS) => flavor aversion (UCR) © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Generalization and Discrimination • Stimulus Generalization: Learned response not only to the original stimulus but also to other similar stimuli – Little Albert feared stimuli resembling rat • Stimulus Discrimination: Learned response to a specific stimulus but not to other, similar stimuli – Pavlov’s dogs learned to discriminate between tones © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Extinction • Pairings of the CS and UCS lead to conditioning whereas presentation of the CS only leads to loss of the conditioned response • Extinction refers to loss of response to a CS presented without the UCS – Extinction is not forgetting • Extinction is useful in clinical situations – Extinction of a phobia can be treated by exposure to the CS only © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Extinction © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Spontaneous Recovery • Spontaneous recovery: Reappearance of a conditioned response after extinction © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Higher-Order Conditioning • Higher-Order Conditioning: A neutral stimulus (NS) becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) through repeated pairings with a previously conditioned stimulus (CS). – Children learn to pair McDonald’s restaurant with food, and later learn that the two golden arches are a symbol for McDonald’s © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Higher-Order Conditioning © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life • • • • Prejudice Phobias Medical Treatments Advertising © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Classical Conditioning and Prejudice © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Operant Conditioning • Organisms make responses that have consequences – The consequences serve to increase or decrease the likelihood of making that response again – The response can be associated with cues in the environment • We put coins in a machine to obtain food • But we refrain when an Out of Order sign is placed on the machine © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Key Aspects of Operant Conditioning • In operant conditioning, the stimulus is a cue, it does not elicit the response • Operant responses are voluntary • In operant conditioning, the response elicits a reinforcing stimulus, whereas in classical conditioning, the UCS elicits the reflexive response © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Key Terms of Operant Conditioning • Reinforcement is any procedure that increases the response • Punishment is any procedure that decreases the response • Types of reinforcers: – Primary: satisfy a biological need – Secondary: have learned value © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Reinforcement/Punishment © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Schedules of Reinforcement • Continuous: reinforcement occurs after every response – Produces rapid acquisition and is subject to rapid extinction • Partial: reinforcement occurs after some, but not all, responses – Responding on a partial reinforcement schedule is more resistant to extinction © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Partial Reinforcement Schedules • Ratio: schedules based on responses – Fixed: every nth response is reinforced – Variable: ratio varies unpredictably • Interval: schedules based on time – Fixed: interval is x in length (e.g. 1 min) – Variable: interval varies unpredictably © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Reinforcement Schedules © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Shaping • Shaping: Reinforcement is delivered for successive approximations of the desired response © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Side Effects of Punishment • • • • • • Increased aggression Passive aggressiveness Avoidance behavior Modeling Temporary suppression Learned helplessness © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Summary of Conditioning © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Applying Operant Conditioning • Provide immediate and clear feedback • Reinforcers and punishers should be presented as close in time to the response as possible • Reinforcement and punishment must be consistent • Feedback must follow subject’s behavior, not precede it © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Biofeedback • Feedback allows for control of responses – Most operant responses are voluntary motor system responses – The autonomic nervous system (ANS) does not provide sufficient sensory feedback to the brain to allow for conscious control • Biofeedback uses electronic devices to provide feedback and control of ANS function (e.g. skin temperature) © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Biofeedback © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Cognitive-Social Theory • Cognitive-social theory: uses learning principles in combination with an emphasis on thought processes • Observational learning refers to the notion that humans can learn through observation of models – Requires attention to the model – Involves cognitive abilities to organize and remember the modeled behavior – Requires practice of the modeled behavior – Person must decide to use the modeled behavior © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Cognitive-Social Learning • Insight: Sudden understanding of a problem that implies the solution – Kohler’s chimpanzees • Cognitive Map: A mental image of a three-dimensional space that a person or animal has navigated • Latent Learning: Hidden learning that exists without behavioral signs – Tolman’s rats • Scaffolding: A more experienced person adjusts the amount of guidance to fit the student’s current performance level; combines shaping and modeling © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Neuroscience of Learning • Learning involves changes in the brain – Biochemical changes noted during learning include changes in the ability of neurons to release transmitters across the synaptic cleft – Anatomical changes during learning include circuits within particular brain regions: • E.g. the cerebellum plays a role in certain forms of classical conditioning (involving an eye blinking) © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Instincts • Innate behaviors are inborn, emerge during certain periods, and are not the result of learning © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Evolution and Learning • Biological Preparedness: Built-in readiness to form associations between certain stimuli and responses • Instinctive Drift: Conditioned responses shift (or drift) toward innate response patterns © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E