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The Nature of Motivation • Motivation The psychological forces acting on an individual that determine: • Direction—possible behaviors the individual could engage in. • Effort—how hard the individual will work. • Persistence—whether the individual will keep trying or give up. Explains why people behave the way they do in organizations. © Copyright 2004 McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved. 9–1 Sources of Motivation Personal Characteristics Nature of the Job Individual Motivation Nature of the Organization © Copyright 2004 McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved. 9–2 Expectancy Theory • Motivation will be high when workers believe: High levels of effort will lead to high performance. High performance will lead to the attainment of desired outcomes. • Major Factors of Motivation Expectancy—the belief that effort (input) will result in a certain level of performance. Instrumentality—the belief that performance results in the attainment of outcomes. Valence—how desirable each of the available outcomes from the job is to a person. © Copyright 2004 McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved. 9–3 Expectancy and Motivation • Motivation is highest when expectancy, instrumentality, and valence levels are high. If one of the values is low, motivation will be low: • Workers do not believe they can perform well. • Workers do not believe that performance and rewards are closely linked. • Workers do not value the rewards offered for performance. © Copyright 2004 McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved. 9–4 Need Theories • Need A requirement for survival and well-being. • Need Theories Theories of motivation that focus on what needs people are trying to satisfy at work and what outcomes will satisfy those needs. Basis premise is that people are motivated to obtain outcomes at work to satisfy their needs. • Managers must determine what needs a worker wants satisfied and ensure that a person receives the outcomes when performing well. © Copyright 2004 McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved. 9–5 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Needs Highest-level needs Lowest-level needs Description Examples Selfactualization Realize one’s full potential Use abilities to the fullest Esteem Feel good about oneself Promotions and recognition Belongingness Social interaction, love Interpersonal relations, parties Safety Security, stability Job security, health insurance Physiological Food, water, shelter Basic pay level to buy items Lower-level needs must be satisfied before higher-level needs are addressed. Table 9.1 © Copyright 2004 McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved. 9–6 Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory • Focuses on outcomes that lead to higher motivation and job satisfaction, and those outcomes that can prevent dissatisfaction. Motivator needs relate to the nature of the work itself—autonomy, responsibility, interesting work. Hygiene needs are related to the physical and psychological context of the work—comfortable work environment, pay, job security. • Unsatisfied hygiene needs create dissatisfaction; satisfaction of hygiene needs does not lead to motivation or job satisfaction. © Copyright 2004 McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved. 9–7 McClelland’s Needs for Achievement, Affiliation, and Power • Need for Achievement A strong need to perform challenging tasks well and meet personal standards for excellence. • Need for Affiliation A concern for good interpersonal relations, being liked, and getting along. • Need for Power A desire to control or influence others. © Copyright 2004 McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved. 9–8 Adam’s Equity Theory • Focuses on people’s perceptions of the fairness (or lack of fairness) of their work outcomes in proportion to their work inputs. A relative outcome to input ratio comparison to oneself or to another person (referent) perceived as similar to oneself. Equity exists when a person perceives that their outcome/input ratio to be equal to the referent’s ratio. • If the referent receives more outcomes, they should also give more inputs to achieve equity. © Copyright 2004 McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved. 9–9 Goal Setting Theory • Focuses on identifying the types of goals that are effective in producing high levels of motivation and explaining why goals have these effects. • Considers how managers can ensure that workers focus their inputs (efforts) in the direction of high performance and the achievement of organizational goals. © Copyright 2004 McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved. 9–10 Operant Conditioning Theory • Operant Conditioning People learn to perform behaviors that lead to desired consequences and learn not to perform behaviors that lead to undesired consequences. Linking specific behaviors to the attainment of specific outcomes can motivate high performance and prevent behaviors that detract from organizational effectiveness. © Copyright 2004 McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved. 9–11 Operant Conditioning Tools • Positive Reinforcement Getting desired outcomes for performing needed work behaviors. • Positive reinforcers: pay, praises, or promotions. • Negative Reinforcement Eliminating undesired outcomes once the desired behavior occurs. • Negative reinforcers: criticisms, pay cuts, suspension. • Is not the same as punishment. © Copyright 2004 McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved. 9–12 Operant Conditioning Tools (cont’d) • Extinction Curtailing the performance of a dysfunctional behavior by eliminating whatever is reinforcing it. • Behavior is not rewarded and over time, the worker stops performing it. • Punishment Administering an undesired/negative consequence to immediately stop a dysfunctional behavior. • Manager administers an undesired consequence to worker (verbal reprimand, demotion, pay cut). © Copyright 2004 McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved. 9–13 Social Learning Theory • A theory that takes into account how learning and motivation are influenced by people’s thoughts and beliefs and their observations of other people’s behavior. • Vicarious Learning (Observational Learning) When a learner is motivated to perform a behavior by watching another person perform and be rewarded. • People are motivated to imitate models who are highly competent, expert, receive attractive reinforcers, and are friendly or approachable. © Copyright 2004 McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved. 9–14 Pay and Motivation • Pay as a Motivator Expectancy • Pay is an instrumentality (and outcome) • Expectancy must be high for motivation to be high. Need Theory • Pay is used to satisfy many needs. Equity Theory • Pay is given in proportion to inputs. © Copyright 2004 McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved. 9–15