Download Human Anatomy & Physiology

Urinary System
Endocrine System
Male Reproductive System
Female Reproductive System
Urinary System
Anatomical structures
– Kidneys
– Adrenal glands
– Ureters
– Bladder
– Urethra
– CVA
• Costovertebral angle
• Kidney – gross anatomy
– Cortex
– Medulla
• Pyramids
• Papilla
– Hilum
– Pelvis
• Calyx
• Ureter
• Kidney – microanatomy
– Nephron
• Glomerulus
• Bowman’s capsule
• Proximal collecting tubule
• Henle’s loop
• Distal collecting tubule
• Collecting duct
Note:
cortex has everything
medulla has only:
loop of Henle
Collecting tubules
Functions of the kidney
1. Removes nitrogenous wastes
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Urea
Uric acid
Creatinine
Ammonia
2. Maintains homeostasis
– Fluid balance
– Electrolyte balance
– Acid-base balance
3. Excretory organ
– Via blood filtration & formation of urine
4. Regulation of blood pressure
– Juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA)
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Urine formation
1.
Filtration
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2.
Reabsorption
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3.
Occurs in proximal
convoluted tubule
It takes things back
into blood
Secretion
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4.
Occurs in renal
corpuscle
Occurs in distal
convoluted tubule
Blood gives things up
to the urine
Concentration
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Occurs in collecting
tubules
Terms reflective of urinary function
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Polyuria
Oligouria
Anuria
Hematuria
Pyuria
Nocturia
Dysuria
Urinary retention
Urinary incontinence
Pathology of the Urinary System
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Urethritis
Cystitis
Glomerulonephritis
Pyelonephritis
Renal calculus (stones)
Urine outflow obstruction
– Hydronephrosis
– Hydroureter
Endocrine System
2 kind of glands
1. Exocrine --- have ducts to lead secretions to where they going
2. Endocrine --- no ducts; secretions (hormones) into bloodstream
“official” Endocrine Glands
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Pineal
Hypothalamus
Pituitary
Thyroid
Parathyroids
Thymus
Pancreas
Adrenals
Ovaries
Testes
• Concept:
– Many organs produce hormones (chemical messengers)
Endocrine glands in `mixed function' organs and in exclusive function glands.
Pineal Gland
• Located near roof of third ventricle just above the thalamus
• as one ages this gland becomes fibrous & calcifies
• called “third eye”
• because its secretion of melatonin is dependent on amount
of light one sees (less light; more melatonin)
• Melatonin’s actions:
» may inhibit anterior pituitary gonadotropins
» regulates the body’s internal clock
• Also secretes Serotonin
• serotonin levels effect depression
• serotonin is a neurotransmitter
Hypothalmus
• Two things it does relating to the endocrine system
– it makes the posterior pituitary hormones
» oxytocin (OT)
» antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
– it controls the anterior pituitary by means of hormones it makes
» Releasing Hormones
* exp = GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone)
» Inhibiting Hormones
• It also acts as a connector between the nervous & endocrine system
– For example, emotions originate there & stimulate the endocrine system
– emotions = hunger, sex, pain, pleasure, anger, fear
Pituitary Gland
• Also called hypophysis
– 2 parts: Anterior Pituitary (adenohypophysis)
Posterior Pituitary (neurohypophysis)
• Anterior Pituitary
Posterior Pituitary
• TSH
* ADH (vasopressin)
• ACTH
* OT
• FSH
• LH
• GH
• PRL
KNOW THE NAMES & FUNCTIONS OF EACH HORMONE
• Key Point: the Posterior Pituitary is an extension of the
Hypothalmus
– Its two hormones are made in the hypothalmus and secreted
from the axon terminals in the posterior pituitary.
Diseases of the pituitary
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TSH
– hypersecretion = hyperthyroidism
– hyposecretion = hypothyroisism
ACTH
– hyposecretion = Addisonian synd.
– hypersecretion = Cushingoid synd
FSH
– hyposecretion
• F = low estrogen, amenorrhea
• M = poor sperm production
– hypersecretion
• F = menopause
LH
– hyposecretion
• F = no ovulation
• M = low testosterone
• GH
– hypersecretion
• during growth = giantism
• after growth = acromegaly
– hyposecretion = dwarfism
• PRL
– hypersecretion = galactorrhea,
infertility
– hyposecretion = poor milk production
• ADH
– hyposecretion = diabetes insipidus
Thyroid Gland
•
3 hormones
• Thyroxine (T4) = more abundant than T3, but less potent
• Triiodothyronine (T3) = more potent than T4
• Calcitonin
• Thyroid hormones (T4 & T3)
– function is to increase the metabolic rate
– hyperthyoidism
• Grave’s disease = one type; inherited; get exopthalmos
– hypothyroidism
• cretinism = congenital type
• myxedema = adult type
• Hashimoto’s disease = autoimmune; chronic inflam.
produces fibrosis
• Calcitonin
– lowers serum calcium by preventing the bones from giving it
up
– works in harmony with the parathyroid & parathormone
Parathyroid Glands
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Normally 4 glands located on posterior surface of thyroid
• may have up to 8 glands
produces hormone: Parathormone (PTH)
– it increases calcium in blood by breaking down bone to release calcium
– it works in conjunction & opposite calcitonin
– hypersecretion = hypercalcemia (get hyperparathyroidism)
• symptoms = muscle weakness + SOUP
• Secondary Hyperparathyroidism more common
– Etiology = decrease serum calcium secondary to:
» Renal disease
» Cancer
» Endocrine diseases (Grave’s & Addison’s)
– hyposecretion = hypocalcemia ( get hypoparathyroidism)
» symptoms = tetany + hyperexcitible nervous system
» Commonest etiology = metastatic cancer to bone (gives increase in
serum calcium)
Thymus
• Located behind the manubrium
• prominent in the newborn; by age 21 it atrophies
• produces hormone: Thymosin
• it matures T- lymphocytes
– after they have been acted upon by the thymus,
they are sent for storage & future activation
» this occurs in the lymph nodes & spleen
Pancreas
• Pancreas is both endocrine & exocrine gland
– exocrine = digestive enzymes secreted via duct into duodenum
– endocrine located in Islets of Langerhans
• has 2 types of cells each producing its own hormone
– alpha cells produce glucagon
» it raises blood sugar by increasing liver glycogenolysis
– beta cells produce insulin
» it lowers blood sugar by escorting glucose into the cells
– lack or improper response to insulin gives diabetes mellitus
• Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus(IDDM) = Type I
– autoimmune; get decreased production of insulin
• Non Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus(NIDDM) = Type II
– get cellular insensitivity to insulin
Diabetes Mellitus
• As cells deprived of sugar, they begin to metabolize fats & proteins
• This process allows wastes(ketone bodies) to accumulate
• Etiology = autoimmune process triggered by an infection early in life
• Main systems affected:
» Vascular
» Renal
» Eye
• Symptoms = polyuria, polyphagia, & polydipsia
• Fruity odor to breath
• Complications
– Diabetic coma ---- lethargy, dry (dehydrated)
– Insulin shock ---- anxiety, sweating
Adrenal, Cortex & Medulla
Adrenal Cortex
• Has 3 distinct layers or zones
– from outside towards middle:
• secretes mineralcorticoids (Aldosterone)
• secretes glucocorticoids (Cortisol)
• secretes gonadocorticoids (sex steroids)
• Mineralcorticoids retain water + sodium & excrete potassium
– purpose = to maintain blood volume & electrolyte balance
• Glucocorticoids make glucose especially in times of prolonged stress
– this glucose made by increased metabolic breakdown of protein & fat
» Thus cortisol is catabolic, not anabolic
– also is anti-inflammatory
– also maintains blood pressure
Adrenal Medulla
• Produces 2 hormones
» Epinephrine (Adrenalin)
» Nor-epinephrine (Nor-Adrenalin)
• These very important during stressful situations
• They are under the control of the sympathetic nervous
system
– also known as the adrenergic nervous system
– deals with Fear, Flight, or Fight
» It produces excess epinephrine
Diseases of the Adrenal Cortex
– even though there are 3 different classes of hormones, most
diseases affect primarily the glucocorticoids
– Hypersecretion
• Cushing’s Disease (MOODIAH)
– Moon face; Obesity & edema from salt & water retention;
Osteoporosis; Diabetes; Infections; Atherosclerosis;
Hypertension
– Hyposecretion
• Addison’s Disease
– get hypotension, fatigue, weakness, & weight loss
– get dehydration & hyperkalemia* (from lack of
aldosterone)
– get bronze skin color & pigmentation
* This can become life threatening
The Gonads
Testes
• Secretes testosterone
• Produces sperm
Ovaries
• Secretes estrogen
• Secretes progesterone
• Produces mature ova
Male Reproductive System
• Scrotum
• Testes
– Seminiferous tubules
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Epididymis
Vas deferens
Ejaculatory duct
Penis
• Urethra
• Glans penis
• Prepuce
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Seminal vesicles
Prostate
Bulbourethral glands
Semen
• Testis
– Seminiferous
tubules
– Hormones
produced
• Pathology
– BPH
• Benign prostatic
hypertrophy
– Testicular cancer
Female Reproductive System
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Vulva
Vagina
Vestibule
Labia majora
Labia minora
Clitoris
Bartholin’s glands
Perineum
Breasts
– Lactiferous ducts
– Areola & nipple
• Ovaries
• Fallopian tubes
• Uterus
– Fundus, corpus, cervix
• Menstrual cycle
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Menses
Proliferative phase
Ovulation
Secretory phase
• Breast
– Ducts
– Areola
– Nipple
• Pathology
– Cancer
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Breast
Uterus
Cervix
Ovarian
– Endometriosis
– PID
– PMS
STD’s
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causative agent
comments
Chlamydia
bacteria
most common, “silent” STD
Gonorrhea
bacteria
Penicillin resistant
At birth, Crede procedure is done to the baby’s eyes
Syphilis
bacteria
3 stages, penicillin treats it
Hepatitis B
virus
babies vaccinated at birth
Hepatitis C
virus
Herpes
virus
HPV (papilloma)
virus
warts, causes cervical ca
HIV
virus
use condoms, test frequency
Vaginitis
– Monilia
– BV
– Trichomonas
fungus
bacteria
protozoa
All these vaginal infections may
or may not be STD’s!!
Essentials of Human Anatomy
Endocrine System
37
Endocrine System
• Major control system
– Works with the nervous system
– Function:
• to maintain homeostasis
• Both use
– specific communication
methods
– affect specific target organs
• Their methods and effects
differ.
Endocrine Glands & Hormones
• Exocrine glands: ducted
– secretions released into ducts
– open onto an epithelial
surface
• Endocrine glands: ductless
– secrete product directly into
the bloodstream
• All endocrine cells are
located within highly
vascularized areas
– ensure that their products
enter the bloodstream
immediately.
Major Endocrine Glands
Hypothalamic Control of the
Endocrine System
• Master control center of the endocrine system
• Hypothalamus oversees most endocrine
activity:
– special cells in the hypothalamus secrete
hormones that influence the secretory activity of
the anterior pituitary gland
• called regulatory hormones
– releasing hormones (RH)
– inhibiting hormones (IH)
• Hypothalamus has indirect control over these
endocrine organs.
Hypothalamic Control of the
Endocrine System
• Hypothalamus produces two hormones that are
transported to and stored in the posterior pituitary.
– oxytocin
– antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
• Hypothalamus directly oversees the stimulation and
hormone secretion of the adrenal medulla.
– An endocrine structure that secretes its hormones in response
to stimulation by the sympathetic nervous system.
• Some endocrine cells are not under direct control of
hypothalamus.
Hypothalamic Hormones
Pituitary Gland
 Size of a grape
 Hangs by a stalk from the hypothalamus
 Protected by the sphenoid bone
 Has two functional lobes
 Anterior pituitary – glandular tissue
 Posterior pituitary – nervous tissue
‫ السرج التركي‬Sella Turcica
Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
 Six anterior pituitary hormones
 Two affect non-endocrine targets
 Four stimulate other endocrine glands
(tropic hormones)
Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
Control of Anterior Pituitary Gland
Secretions
• Anterior pituitary gland is controlled by
regulatory hormones secreted by the
hypothalamus.
• Hormones reach the anterior pituitary via
hypothalamo- hypophyseal portal system.
– takes venous blood carrying regulatory
hormones from the hypothalamus directly to
the anterior pituitary
Thyroid Gland
• Located immediately inferior to the thyroid cartilage of the
larynx and anterior to the trachea.
• Distinctive “butterfly” shape due to its left and right lobes,
which are connected at the anterior midline by a narrow
isthmus.
• Both lobes of the thyroid gland are highly vascularized, giving
it an intense reddish coloration.
• Regulation of thyroid hormone secretion depends upon a
complex thyroid gland–pituitary gland negative feedback
process.
Thyroid Gland
• Follicle cells:
– Produce and secrete thyroid hormone
– Precursor is stored in colloid
• Thyroid hormone
– Increases metabolic rate
– Important in growth and development.
• Parafollicular cells
– Produce and secrete calcitonin
• Calcitonin
– Secreted in response to elevated calcium levels
– Reduces blood calcium levels
– Acts on osteoblasts.
Disorders of the Thyroid Gland
Graves Disease
• Hyperthyroidism
Cretinism
• Infantile
hypothyroidism
Goiter
• Small, brownish-red glands
Parathyroid Glands
– located on the posterior surface of the thyroid
gland
• Usually four small nodules
– may have as few as two or as many as six.
• Two different types of cells in the
parathyroid gland:
– chief cells
– oxyphil cells
• Chief cells are the source of parathyroid
hormone (PTH).
– stimulates osteoclasts to resorb bone and
release calcium ions from bone matrix
into the bloodstream
– stimulates calcitriol hormone synthesis
in the kidney
– promotes calcium absorption in the
small intestine
– prevents the loss of calcium ions during
the formation of urine
• The function of oxyphil cells is not known.
Adrenal Glands (suprarenal)
• Paired, pyramid-shaped
endocrine glands anchored on
the superior surface of each
kidney.
• Retroperitoneal and embedded
in fat and fascia to minimize
their movement.
• Outer adrenal cortex and an
inner central core called the
adrenal medulla.
– secrete different types of
hormones
Adrenal Cortex
• Distinctive yellow color due to
stored lipids in its cell.
• Synthesize more than 25 different
steroid hormones, collectively
called corticosteroids.
– corticosteroid synthesis is stimulated
by the ACTH produced by the anterior
pituitary
– corticosteroids are vital to our
survival; trauma to or removal of the
adrenal glands requires corticosteroid
supplementation throughout life
Adrenal Cortex
• Partitioned into:
• the zona glomerulosa
• the zona fasciculata
• the zona reticularis.
• Different functional categories
of steroid hormones are
synthesized and secreted in the
separate zones.
• Regulates salt, sugar, and sex!
Adrenal Medulla
• Forms the inner core of each adrenal gland.
• Pronounced red-brown color due to its extensive vascularization.
• Primarily consists of clusters of large, spherical cells called
chromaffin cells.
• When innervated by the sympathetic division of the ANS, one
population of cells secretes the hormone epinephrine (adrenaline).
• The other population secretes the hormone norepinephrine
(noradrenaline).
• Hormones work with the sympathetic nervous system to prepare
the body for an emergency or fight-or-flight situation.
Pancreas
•
Elongated, spongy, nodular organ
– between the duodenum and the
spleen
– posterior to the stomach.
•
Both exocrine and endocrine
– considered a heterocrine (mixed)
gland.
•
Mostly composed of cells called
pancreatic acini.
– produce an alkaline pancreatic juice
that aids digestion
•
Scattered among the pancreatic acini
are small clusters of endocrine cells
called pancreatic islets (islets of
Langerhans) composed of four types
of cells:
– two major types (called alpha cells
and beta cells)
– two minor types (called delta cells
and F cells)
– each type produces its own hormone
Pancreas
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Alpha cells secrete glucagon when blood
glucose levels drop.
Beta cells secrete insulin when blood glucose
levels are elevated.
Delta cells are stimulated by high levels of
nutrients in the bloodstream.
– synthesize somatostatin, also described as growth
hormone-inhibiting hormone, or GHIH, which
slows the release of insulin and glucagon
and slows the rate of nutrient entry into the
bloodstream
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F cells are stimulated by protein digestion.
– secrete pancreatic polypeptide to suppress
and regulate somatostatin secretion from
delta cells
Pancreatic hormones provide for orderly uptake
and processing of nutrients.
Pineal Gland
• Pineal gland or pineal body, is a
small, cone-shaped structure
attached to the posterior region of
the epithalamus.
• Secretes melatonin.
– helps regulate a circadian
rhythm (24-hour body clock)
– also appears to affect the
synthesis of the hypothalamic
regulatory hormone
responsible for FSH and LH
synthesis
– role in sexual maturation is not
well understood
Thymus
• A bilobed structure located within the mediastinum superior to the
heart and immediately posterior to the sternum.
• Size of the thymus varies between individuals.
– it is always relatively large in infants and children
– as with the pineal gland, the thymus diminishes in size and
activity with age, especially after puberty
• Functions principally in association with the lymphatic system to
regulate and maintain body immunity.
• Produces complementary hormones thymopoietin and thymosins.
– hormones act by stimulating and promoting the differentiation,
growth, and maturation of a category of lymphocytes called Tlymphocytes (thymus-derived lymphocytes)
Other Endocrine Glands
Reproductive
• ovaries produce estrogens and progesterone
• testes produce testosterone
• placenta produces estrogens, progesterone, and
gonadotropins
THE END